A personal watercraft (PWC), also called jet ski, sea-doo, or water scooter, is a primarily recreationalwatercraft that is designed to hold only a small number of occupants, who sit or stand on top of the craft, not within the craft as in a boat.
PWCs have two style categories. The first and the most popular is a compact runabout, typically holding no more than two or three people, who mainly sit on top of the watercraft as with riding a motorcycle or quadbike. The second style is a "stand-up" type, typically built for only one occupant who operates the watercraft standing up as in riding a motorized scooter; it is used more for doing tricks, racing, and in competitions. Both styles have an inboard engine driving a pump-jet that has a screw-shaped impeller to create thrust for propulsion and steering. Most are designed for two or three people, though four-passenger models exist. Many of today's models are built for more extended use and have the fuel capacity to make long cruises, in some cases even beyond 160 kilometres (100mi).[1]
The United States Coast Guard defines a personal watercraft, amongst other criteria, as a jet-drive boat less than 12 feet (3.7m) long.[2] There are many larger "jetboats" not classed as PWCs, some more than 40 feet (12m) long.
Water scooters—as they were originally termed—were first developed in the United Kingdom and Europe in the mid-1950s, with models such as the British 200cc propeller-driven VincentAmanda, and the German Wave Roller.[3][4] Two thousand Vincent Amandas were exported to Australia, Asia, Europe and the United States.[5]
1961 Sea Skimmer / Aqua Skimmer could reach speeds up to 40km/h
The Sea Skimmer was introduced in 1961 as a highly maneuverable version of a propelled surfboard. It was 1.5m 15.24cm long, powered by an inboard/outboard motor and reached speeds up to 40Km/h. The rider lay on the boat, controlling the speed with hand throttles and using the feet as rudders. Originally manufactured in Kansas City, operations moved to Boynton, Florida in 1962, and changed the name to Aqua-Skimmer. Aqua-Skimmer ceased operations in 1962 and sold its inventory to the military. Renamed Aqua Dart (Aqua Dart INC), the Sea Skimmer, Aqua Skimmer, Aqua Dart was modified for military requirements, and saw service in 1962 river reconnaissance missions in Vietnam and other military missions until the 1970s.[6][7][8][9][10][11]
The first stand-up prototype
In the 1960s, the idea was developed further by Clayton Jacobson II of Lake Havasu City, Arizona, USA. Originally a motocross enthusiast,[12][13][14] Jacobson's idea was designed in the mid-1960s, powered by an internal pump-jet rather than an outboard motor,[14] made of all aluminum, and had a fixed, upright handle. Jacobson eventually quit his job in banking to devote himself to developing the idea, and had a working prototype by 1965. It differed slightly from modern personal watercraft but had definite similarities. He completed a second prototype a year later made of fiberglass.[15] The first Clayton-type PWC to reach the market was designed by Bombardier in the late 1960s.[16] Bombardier's original designs were not very popular and Bombardier left the business before 1970.
Stand-up PWCs were first produced by the Japanese company Kawasaki (under the Jet Ski brand) in 1972,[17] and appeared on the US market in 1973. These were mass-produced boats to be used by only one rider. While they are still produced today, the more popular design is the sit down variety of PWC. These sit down runabouts have been produced by Kawasaki (Jetski), Bombardier (Sea-Doo), Yamaha (WaveRunner), Honda (AquaTrax), Polaris (Sealion) and Arctic Cat (Tigershark). As of 2010, the major manufacturers of PWCs were Kawasaki, Bombardier and Yamaha. Both Yamaha and Kawasaki continue to sell stand-up models but it is a small percentage of the overall market.
An electric personal watercraft
Electric PWCs were commercialized in the early 2020s. Electric watercraft are increasing in popularity as gasoline engines produce greenhouse gases and can eject motor oil and gasoline directly into waterways.
Sports
PWC racing competitions take place around the world. There are several disciplines: closed circuit speed races, offshore speed races (offshore), endurance races, freestyle (freestyle) and freeride events. For all these types of events, with the exception of freestyle, there are at least two categories: saddle jets and stand-up jets. For speed races, gear is generally classified according to the degree of authorized modifications: minor modifications fall into the so-called "stock" category, intermediate modifications into the so-called "limited" category, and more extensive modifications into the category. known as "F1". In freestyle and freeride, these categories do not exist, we[who?] classify the competitors according to the type of watercraft used (with stand-up or saddle).
The sport is ruled by the World Powerboating Federation (U.I.M.) recognised by the IOC. The current official world series that was established in 1996 is the Aquabike World Championship.[18] The sport is also established at national level and is ruled by each national federations member of the U.I.M. Aquabike World Championship is known among the motorsports with most different national entries for each competition, reaching up to 32 nationalities and 140 riders registered to compete in Italy in 2018.[19]
Other private competitions also exists such as P1 AquaX which is a personal watercraft racing series, first launched in the UK in May 2011 by London-based sports promoter Powerboat P1. The series attracted a mix of new and current racers to a new type of racing and in 2013, P1 rolled out a second series in the USA. Such was the uptake that the original format needed revising to cope with the influx of new riders and by the end of 2015 over 400 riders from 11 countries had registered to compete in an AquaX event.
In the United States, the main sanctioning bodies are the International Jet Sport Boating Association (IJSBA) and Pro Watercross (PWX). As of 2022, the sport is experiencing exceeding levels of fragmentation and conflict due to poor management of the sanctioning bodies and non-constructive competition between organizations. The IJSBA World Finals competition is traditionally held in Lake Havasu City, Arizona in early October. The Pro Watercross World Finals are typically held in Naples, Florida in November.
PWCs are small, fast, easily handled, fairly easy to use, and affordable, and their propulsion systems do not have external propellers, making them in some respects safer than small motorboats for swimmers and wildlife. For these reasons, they are used for fishing, one of the PWC industry's fastest-growing segments.
Lifeguards use PWCs equipped with rescue platforms to rescue water users from trouble, as well as flood survivors, and carry them to safety. Police and rangers use them to enforce laws in coastal waters, lakes and rivers. [citation needed] A PWC combined with a wash-reduction system, carrying waterproof loudspeaker equipment and GPS for instructions and distance measurement, has reportedly[citation needed] been used by assistant coaches for rowing sports on the River Tyne.
Further, PWCs are used by the U.S. Navy as surface targets.[citation needed] When equipped with GPS, electronic compass, radar reflector, and a radio modem, the PWC can be controlled remotely with a two-way link. Its small shipboard footprint allows it to be stored in and deployed from the smallest of vessels, and it has been used for target practice for armaments of sizes from 5in (13cm)cannon to small arms.[citation needed]
PWC warning label indicating risk of body cavity injuries
Apart from the obvious hazards of collisions and mechanical breakdowns common to all vehicles, operating or riding a PWC can involve a risk of orifice injuries.[20][21] These injuries are typical of the kinds of injuries that waterskiers experience as a result of falling into the water at speed.[22] Such injuries can occur from simply falling in the water at speed or they can occur from the output end of the pump jet. A rider who falls (or is ejected) off the back can land directly in the path of the PWC's high-pressure jet of water. Unless a rider is appropriately dressed in garments made out of a strong, thick substance like neoprene (as is commonly found in wetsuits), the jet may penetrate any orifice it reaches. All major PWC manufacturers warn about this risk and recommend that passengers wear wet suit bottoms or equivalent protection. The American Waterski Racing Association recommends that all of their racers wear wet suit bottoms for this same reason.
Such orifice injuries can result in permanent disability or death.[23][24] For example, in 2006, the California Court of Appeal for the First Appellate District upheld a $3.7 million Napa County jury verdict against Polaris Industries arising out of one such incident (which had devastating effects on the victim's lower abdomen).[25] It is also possible for multiple riders on the same PWC to sustain orifice injuries in a single accident, as actually occurred in a 2007 accident at Mission Bay which resulted in a San Diego County jury verdict affirmed in full on appeal in 2014.[26]
Another noteworthy risk of injury is known as off throttle steering which results from the lack of steering capability while off throttle in certain model PWC this can result in death or serious bodily injuries.
While also rare, spinal injuries can occur while surf jumping and, potentially, wake jumping.[27] The PWC manufacturers owner's manuals all include warnings regarding jumping at excessive heights, or operating a PWC if there is a prior history of back injury. The current on-product labels say "Jumping wakes or waves can increase the risk of spinal/backbone injuries (paralysis)".[28] The current Kawasaki owner's manual provides: "Slow down before crossing waves. Do not ride if you have a back condition. High speed operation in choppy or rough water may cause back injuries."[29]
Another rare, but unique injury risk with jetboats, is being sucked into the intake side of the pump jet. Current PWC products contain on-product warnings that state: "Keep away from Intake Grate while the engine is on. Items such as long hair, loose clothing, or PFD straps can become entangled in moving parts and result in severe injury or drowning".[30]
There have been fatal accidents involving PWCs. In a notable case, U.S. astronaut Alan G. Poindexter died in 2012 from injuries sustained in a Jet Ski accident in Florida.[31]
Sea-Doo is a Canadian brand of personal watercraft (PWC) and boats manufactured by Bombardier Recreational Products (BRP). All Sea-Doo models are driven by an impeller-driven waterjet. All Sea-Doo PWC models are produced at BRP's plants in Querétaro and Juárez, Mexico. Its Rotax engines are produced at BRP's plant in Gunskirchen, Austria. In 2016, Sea-Doo had a 45.8% share of the PWC market.
Jet Ski is the brand name of a personal watercraft (PWC) manufactured by Kawasaki, a Japanese company. The term is often used generically to refer to any type of personal watercraft used mainly for recreation, and it is also used as a verb to describe the use of any type of PWC.
BRP Inc. is the holding company for Bombardier Recreational Products Inc., operating as BRP, a Canadian manufacturer of snowmobiles, all-terrain vehicles, side by sides, motorcycles, and personal watercraft. It was founded in 2003, when the Recreational Products Division of Bombardier Inc. was spun off and sold to a group of investors consisting of Bain Capital, the Bombardier-Beaudoin family and the Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec. Bombardier Inc., was founded in 1942 as L'Auto-Neige Bombardier Limitée by Joseph-Armand Bombardier at Valcourt in the Eastern Townships, Quebec.
Tow-in surfing is a surfing technique which uses artificial assistance to allow the surfer to catch faster-moving waves than was traditionally possible when paddling by hand. Tow-in surfing was invented by surfers who wanted to catch big waves and break the 30 ft (9 m) barrier. It has been one of the biggest breakthroughs in surfing history.
Tubing, also known as inner tubing, bumper tubing, towed tubing, biscuiting, or kite tubing, is a recreational activity where an individual rides on top of an inner tube, either on water, snow, or through the air. The tubes themselves are also known as "donuts" or "biscuits" due to their shape.
A WetBike is a planing motorised personal water craft that is often described as cross between a motorcycle and a jet ski. The original Wetbike was introduced in 1978 by Spirit Marine, a subsidiary of Arctic Enterprises.
The SuperJet is a stand-up type personal watercraft (PWC) made by Yamaha Motor Corporation. Part of Yamaha's WaveRunner line of watercraft, it was introduced in 1990 and has become one of the most successful stand-up personal watercraft ever made. All SuperJets, including the engine, are hand-built in Japan. Credit for the design is given to Clayton Jacobson II.
The Personal Watercraft Industry Association (PWIA) is an American association of personal watercraft (PWC) manufacturers. It is an affiliate of the larger National Marine Manufacturers Association, and was founded in 1987.
WaveRunner is a trademarked name and type of personal water craft (PWC) produced by the Yamaha Motor Company. Unique to the WaveRunner among PWCs is the spout of water that shoots into the air from the rear of the vehicle, a visual brand identifier that exists as a trademark of Yamaha.
The WaveBlaster is a personal water craft (PWC) made by Yamaha Motor Corporation. Part of their WaveRunner line of watercraft, the Yamaha WaveBlaster 700 made its debut in 1993. Although technically a runabout style PWC the blaster is more closely related to the SuperJet.
The Hydrospace is the world's first four-stroke stand-up jet ski, or personal watercraft. It was introduced in October 2005 by Hydrospace. In 2007, Hydrospace changed their name to HSR-Benelli following the acquisition of Benelli Motori.
Clayton Jacobson II was an American inventor who was credited with inventing the jet ski. Before the jet ski, he worked in wholesale food where he met his wife Dianna.
The Sea-Doo GTX is a personal watercraft (PWC) made by Bombardier Recreational Products of Canada. Part of their Sea-Doo line of watercraft, the Sea-Doo GTX has been produced since 1992. It is a three-person personal water craft with a 'luxury' ride combined with a series of engines. The performance of a Rotax marine engine with R.A.V.E. exhaust, a three-passenger contoured seat; dual mirrors; deck pads; ski-eye; left-side forward/neutral/reverse lever; and full instrumentation.
The number of personal watercraft-related accidents has increased with the popularity of personal watercraft (PWC) since their introduction during the late 1960s. The use of the term "jet ski" for all types of PWCs is a misnomer; Jet Ski is a registered trademark in the United States for a line of PWCs manufactured by Kawasaki). With the increased use of personal watercraft since their inception, the hazards accompanying their use have also increased. According to U.S. government reports, most accidents are associated with rental operators, underage operators, under-trained and undereducated boaters and a variety of factors associated with recreational-boating accidents. Due to their affordability, ease of use, and relatively low transportation and maintenance costs, personal watercraft have significantly increased the number of water-based enthusiasts in the U.S. This rise in participation has created conflicts between the various boating segments in the U.S. and a need for additional boater education. Recreational-boating accidents are the second-largest transportation-related cause of injury in the U.S..
Jet Stunt Extreme was a live Personal Watercraft (PWC) Stunt Show at Sea World on the Gold Coast, Australia. Following the successful trial from 16 December 2010 until 23 January 2011, the show returned on 17 September 2011 for an extended season. It starred several of the world's best PWC stunt performers. The show held its final performance on 27 January 2019, being replaced by the Thunder Lake Stunt Show.
The UIM-ABP Aquabike World Championship is a powerboating sports competition. The UIM-ABP Aquabike World Championship is the premier class of jetski racing, founded in 1992. Aquabike jetskis are personal watercraft vehicles purpose-built for racing and modified according to class. The UIM-ABP Aquabike World Championship is organized and promoted by H2O Racing Ltd on behalf of the Union Internationale Motonautique (UIM), the governing body of powerboating and the exclusive entity recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC). ABP refers to Aquabike Promotion.
Franky Zapata is a French personal watercraft pilot who is the inventor of the Flyboard and Flyboard Air, and founder of Zapata Racing. Since 2012, Zapata's efforts have been focused on the development and manufacture of personal flyers for land and aquatic applications.
Anthony Radetic is an American professional personal watercraft champion, alpine skier, and former U. S. Army Blackhawk Pilot. A paraplegic due to a motorcycle accident, Radetic competed during the 2014 and 2016 Invictus Games and is the winner of national and international extreme sports competitions.
The Sea Skimmer was a leisure Personal Watercraft (PWC) unique within the family of Personal Watercraft, whereas the operator laid prone on the boat and steered with shifting leg motions and body weight to control the craft, reaching speeds up to 25 MPH. The Sea Skimmer preceded the modern Jet Ski / Sea Doo. It was transferred into classified Military service in 1962 with boats modified by Aqua Dart INC. It was instrumental in River Reconnaissance missions during the Vietnam war by the United States Naval Special Warfare Command.
↑ Title “Evaluation of River Reconnaissance System by UDT-12 (Aqua Dart)"; National Archives and Records Administration Naval Special Warfare Group SWG Papers, Record Group 38, FY81, vol 62; Entry Number UD-UW 95, Box 21
↑ Sampsell, Michael M.; etal. (2002). Boat Accident Reconstruction and Litigation. Lawyers & Judges Publishing. pp.63–4. ISBN0-913875-79-1.
↑ See Romano RL. Burgess EM. Medical Implications of Water-skiing, Clin Orthop, 22: 140-145 (1962).; David Pfanner, Salpingitis and Water Skiing FRCS The Medical Journal of Australia, 2/1964.; Moore A. T.: Water-skiing in Symposium on Injury in sport. Edited by Armstrong JR, Tucker WE; London Staples, 1964; McCarthy GF. Hazards of water-skiing. Med J Aust. 1969; 1:481; David C. Morton, Gynecological Complications of Water Skiing M.R.C.O.G. Gosford District Hospital, New South Wales Medical Journal of Australia, June 20, 1970. The first waterski reports of this kind of injury appeared in the early 1960s and continue today. Prior to that time there were no reported injuries of this type. Similar reports of this kind of injury have occurred at water slide parks and other similar facilities. Once again, the occurrence rate for this kind of injury appears to be very low.
↑ Bernard Descottes, Fouzi Lachachi, Issifou Moumouni, Sylvaine Durand-Fontanier, and Ramy Geballa, "Case Report: Rectal Injury Caused by Personal Watercraft Accident," Diseases of the Colon and Rectum 46, no. 7 (June 2003): 971-972. The 16-year-old patient described in this case report was deceased. The autopsy revealed that the primary cause of death was toxic shock syndrome caused by the rectal tear.
↑ David P. Parsons, Harry A. Kahn, John T. Isler and Richard P. Billingham, "Case Report: Rectal Injury Caused by Personal Watercraft Accident," Diseases of the Colon and Rectum 42, no. 7 (July 1999): 959-960. The patient described in this case report survived.
↑ Ford v. Polaris Industries, Inc., 139 Cal. App. 4th 755, 43 Cal. Rptr. 3d 215 (2006). The plaintiff survived due to the heroic efforts of UC Davis Medical Center personnel (the court noted that she required "massive resuscitation") but was permanently disabled by her injuries; for example, she has no bowel control.
↑ Colombo v. BRP US Inc., 230 Cal. App. 4th 1442; 179 Cal. Rptr. 3d 580 (2014). As the appellate court explained in its opinion, this case was delayed after the PWC owner initiated a proceeding in federal court under the Limitation of Liability Act of 1851.
↑ Am Surg. 2002 Jul;68(7):624-7. "Pattern of injury from personal watercraft". Haan JM, Kramer ME, Scalea TM; J Trauma. 2004 Dec;57(6):1308-10. "Thoracolumbar fractures associated with the use of personal watercraft". Carmel A, Drescher MJ, Leitner Y, Gepstein R.
↑ 2001 Joint USCG/Industry Label Project, Injury Control and Safety Promotion, 2001, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp71-81; Labeling for Personal Watercraft.
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