Weimar paramilitary groups

Last updated August 18, 2024

Weimar paramilitary groups were militarily organized units that were formed outside of the regular German Army following the defeat of the German Empire in World War I. The most prominent of them, the Freikorps , were combat units that were supported by the German government and used to suppress uprisings from both the Left and the Right. There were also Citizens' Defense (Einwohnerwehr) groups to maintain public order^[1] and paramilitary groups associated with specific political parties to protect and promote their interests.^[2]

Most who volunteered for the paramilitary groups came from the 6 million German soldiers^[3] who returned from the war to a country in the midst of the turmoil of the German revolution, which overthrew the Hohenzollern monarchy and established the Weimar Republic. The Freikorps especially took part in significant fighting in the Baltics, Silesia, Berlin during the Spartacist uprising and the Ruhr during the 1920 uprising there.^[2] The paramilitary groups as a whole contributed significantly to the remilitarization of Germany between the wars.^[4]

The Citizens' Defense groups were disbanded in 1920 and the Freikorps in 1921 because the government came to see them as threats and because of pressure from the Allies, who feared that the paramilitary groups were being used to circumvent the 100,000 man limit on the German Army imposed by the Treaty of Versailles.^[2]^[5] The paramilitary groups connected with political parties lasted throughout the life of the Weimar Republic and in the case of the Nazi Party's Sturmabteilung (SA), beyond its end.

Freikorps

In the aftermath of World War I and during the German revolution of 1918–1919, Freikorps units consisting largely of World War I veterans were raised as paramilitary militias. They were armed with the rifles they had returned with from the front; infantry and cavalry units also had machine guns and mortars.^[6] While exact numbers are difficult to determine, it is estimated that some 500,000 men were formal Freikorps members with another 1.5 million participating informally.^[7]

In the early days of the German revolution, the Council of the People's Deputies, the revolutionary government led by Friedrich Ebert of the Social Democratic Party, needed reliable troops in Berlin to protect its position. In consultation with the Army High Command (OHL), the Council reached an agreement to form the voluntary Freikorps units. Most of their members were anti-communist monarchists who saw no clear future in the revolutionary Germany that they had returned home to. They did not fight in support of the revolutionary government or the Weimar Republic after it was formed, but against its enemies from the political left, who they saw as Germany's enemies.^[6]

Freikorps units suppressed the Marxist Spartacist uprising and were responsible for the extrajudicial executions of revolutionary communist leaders Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg on 15 January 1919.^[8] The Freikorps also fought in the Baltic against Soviet Russia and were instrumental in putting down the Munich Soviet Republic, the Ruhr uprising and the Third Silesian uprising. The Kapp Putsch of March 1920, a failed attempt to overthrow the government of the Weimar Republic, drew its military support from the Freikorps, in particular the Marinebrigade Ehrhardt. It was after the failure of the Kapp Putsch, and under Allied pressure to keep both Germany's official and unofficial military forces at the 100,000 man limit, that the Freikorps were officially disbanded in the spring of 1920. Some Freikorps members were then accepted into the Reichswehr , Germany's official army, but more joined the Nazi Stormtroopers (SA), illegal far right formations such as the Organisation Consul, or groups such as the Stahlhelm that were associated with political parties.^[6]

Freikorps units

For a list of major Freikorps units during the Weimar era, see Freikorps groups and divisions.

Citizens' Defense

The Citizens' Defense paramilitary groups were voluntary, honorary associations based on part-time membership that performed self-protection tasks in local areas. They emerged in 1918 after the end of the First World War to ensure the maintenance of public order in cooperation with state authorities.^[1] After the Spartacist uprising in Berlin in January 1919, the Reichswehr Ministry instructed all general commands on 22 March 1919 to develop local militia groups into centrally controlled citizens' defense groups at the state level according to a uniform model. The newly created units were then to be directly subordinate to the Reichswehr leadership. In an emergency the citizens' defense forces were to serve as an army reserve.^[9]

Instead of becoming a pillar of support for the parliamentary system, some of the citizens' defense forces developed into anti-republican groups that were largely outside the control of the government and thus a threat to the Republic. As a result of the Allied disarmament requirements, the Citizens' Defense forces at Reich level were released from their military subordination and placed under the control of the individual state ministries. The Allies continued to regard them as a military reserve formation that was to be disbanded in accordance with the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles. After the failed Kapp Putsch, the Prussian minister of the Interior ordered the dissolution of the Citizens' Defense groups. His order was followed by the other states in the summer of 1920. Only Bavaria, where the groups had been most active, refused to disband its forces and kept them alive for another year.^[10]

Groups affiliated with political parties

Right-wing

Der Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten (The Steel Helmet, League of Front-Line Soldiers), was officially a veterans' organization with about 500,000 members. Led by Franz Seldte and with ties at the leadership level to the Reichswehr, it was opposed to the Weimar Republic and politically close to the German National People's Party (DNVP) and other conservative groups. In 1931 it formed part of the Harzburg Front, an anti-democratic political alliance that included the Nazi Party. In 1934 it was integrated into the SA and dissolved in 1935.^[11]
Deutschvölkischer Schutz- und Trutzbund (German Nationalist Protection and Defiance Federation) was an antisemitic völkisch group led by Alfred Roth. Its membership peaked at about 200,000 when it was banned by the German government in 1922. It was notable for its revisionist propaganda regarding Germany's defeat in World War I and for attacking Jews, Social Democrats and middle-class supporters of the Republic.^[12]
Sturmabteilung (SA; English "Storm Division") was formed by Adolf Hitler in 1921, with most of its members coming from the Freikorps. As part of the Nazi Party, it protected its meetings, marched in its rallies and was often involved in street violence against members of the political left. Led by Ernst Röhm beginning in 1931, it had an estimated 2,000,000 members when Hitler became German chancellor.^[13]
Kampfbund (Battle League) was a Bavarian umbrella group involving the SA, the Freikorps Oberland and the Bund Reichskriegsflagge (Imperial War Flag Society). It was created on 1 September 1923 to consolidate and streamline their agendas after the government in Berlin called off passive resistance to the French and Belgian occupation of the Ruhr. It planned and conducted the Beer Hall Putsch and disbanded after it failed.^[14]

Center to center-left

Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold (Reich Banner Black-Red-Gold) was devoted to the defense of the Weimar Republic. It was founded by former front-line soldiers of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (who made up the majority of the group), the German Democratic Party and the Catholic Centre Party. Organized militarily, its main opponents were the Nazi SA and the Communist Party of Germany's Roter Frontkämpferbund . The Reichsbanner claimed more than three million members at its peak and was banned by the Nazis in 1933.^[15]^[16]
Eiserne Front (Iron Front) brought together the Reichsbanner, free labor unions and workers' gymnastics and sports associations in 1931 in response to the far right's Harzburg Front. Not itself organized as a paramilitary, the Iron Front's central goal was to strengthen the Social Democrats in the 1932 Reichstag election.^[17]
Jungdeutscher Orden (Young German Order) was a nationalist and antisemitic association founded by Artur Mahraun. Initially a paramilitary, it changed into a more politically oriented group with the goal of recreating the camaraderie experienced by soldiers at the front during World War I in order to overcome class and social differences in German society. In 1930, its political arm merged with the liberal German Democratic Party to form the short-lived German State Party. The Young German Order was banned by the Nazis in 1933.^[18]

Left-wing

Roter Frontkämpferbund (Red Front Fighters' League) was founded by the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) in 1924 and attained a peak membership of 110,000. It was banned across Germany in 1929 after the Blutmai demonstrations in Berlin that left 33 dead. Despite the ban, it engaged in frequent street battles with the Nazi SA until Hitler came to power in 1933.^[19]
Antifaschistische Junge Garde (Young Antifascist Guard) was the youth wing of the KPD ^[20] and was banned in 1933.
Kampfbund gegen den Faschismus [ de ] (Fighting League against Fascism) was the successor to the Roter Frontkämpferbund after it was banned in 1929. The Kampfbund itself was banned in 1933.^[21]
Antifaschistische Aktion (Antifascist Action) was founded in 1932 and affiliated with the KPD. Its primary activity was to boost the KPD campaign during the July 1932 and November 1932 German federal elections. It was banned in 1933.^[22]
Rote Ruhrarmee (Ruhr Red Army) was an army of approximately 50,000 workers that formed in the industrialized Ruhr district during the Kapp Putsch with the goal of establishing a council republic. Not a true paramilitary in structure, it was suppressed with considerable loss of life by government troops and Freikorps units in what was known as the Ruhr uprising (13 March – 12 April 1920).^[23]
Schwarze Scharen (Black Band) were resistance groups of anarchist and anarcho-syndicalist youth affiliated with the Free Workers' Union of Germany (FAUD). The Black Band was banned in 1933.^[24]

Similar organisations existed in the First Austrian Republic, most notably the Schutzbund and the Heimwehr.

Related Research Articles

The Weimar Republic, officially known as the German Reich, was a historical period of Germany from 9 November 1918 to 23 March 1933, during which it was a constitutional federal republic for the first time in history; hence it is also referred to, and unofficially proclaimed itself, as the German Republic. The period's informal name is derived from the city of Weimar, which hosted the constituent assembly that established its government. In English, the republic was usually simply called "Germany", with "Weimar Republic" not commonly used until the 1930s.

The Kapp Putsch, also known as the Kapp–Lüttwitz Putsch, was an attempted coup against the German national government in Berlin on 13 March 1920. Named after its leaders Wolfgang Kapp and Walther von Lüttwitz, its goal was to undo the German Revolution of 1918–1919, overthrow the Weimar Republic, and establish an autocratic government in its place. It was supported by parts of the Reichswehr, as well as nationalist and monarchist factions.

The Ruhr Red Army was an army of between 50,000 and 80,000 left-wing workers who conducted what was known as the Ruhr Uprising (Ruhraufstand), in the Weimar Republic. It was the largest armed workers' uprising in the nation's history, and ran from 13 March to 2 April, 1920, in Germany's most important industrial area. The workers were reacting to the Kapp Putsch, an effort by right-wing forces in March 1920 to overthrow the elected government.

Reichswehr was the official name of the German armed forces during the Weimar Republic and the first years of the Third Reich. After Germany was defeated in World War I, the Imperial German Army was dissolved in order to be reshaped into a peacetime army. From it a provisional Reichswehr was formed in March 1919. Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the rebuilt German Army was subject to severe limitations in size, structure and armament. The official formation of the Reichswehr took place on 1 January 1921 after the limitations had been met. The German armed forces kept the name Reichswehr until Adolf Hitler's 1935 proclamation of the "restoration of military sovereignty", at which point it became part of the new Wehrmacht.

Der Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten, commonly known as Der Stahlhelm, was a German First World War veteran's organisation existing from 1918 to 1935. In the late days of the Weimar Republic, it was closely affiliated to the monarchist German National People's Party (DNVP), placed at party gatherings in the position of armed security guards.

The Kampfbund ("Battle-league") was a league of nationalist fighting societies and the German National Socialist Party in Bavaria, Germany, in the 1920s. It included Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party (NSDAP) and its Sturmabteilung (SA), the Oberland League and the Bund Reichskriegsflagge. Hitler was its political leader, while Hermann Kriebel led its militia.

Gustav Noske was a German politician of the Social Democratic Party (SPD). He served as the first Minister of Defence (Reichswehrminister) of the Weimar Republic between 1919 and 1920. Noske was known for using army and paramilitary forces to suppress the socialist/communist uprisings of 1919.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gustav Ritter von Kahr</span> German politician (1862–1934)

Gustav Ritter von Kahr was a German jurist and right-wing politician. During his career he was district president of Upper Bavaria, Bavarian minister president and, from September 1923 to February 1924, Bavarian state commissioner general with dictatorial powers. In that role he openly opposed the government of the Weimar Republic in several instances, including by ceasing to enforce the Law for the Protection of the Republic. He was also making plans with General Otto von Lossow and Bavarian police commander Hans von Seisser to topple the Reich government in Berlin. In November 1923, before they could act, Adolf Hitler instigated the Beer Hall Putsch. The three turned against Hitler and helped stop the attempted coup. After being forced to resign as state commissioner general in 1924, Kahr served as president of the Bavarian Administrative Court until 1930. Because of his actions during the Beer Hall Putsch, he was murdered during the Nazi purge known as the Night of the Long Knives in June 1934.

Antifaschistische Aktion was a militant anti-fascist organisation in the Weimar Republic started by members of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) that existed from 1932 to 1933. It was primarily active as a KPD campaign during the July 1932 German federal election and the November 1932 German federal election and was described by the KPD as a "red united front under the leadership of the only anti-fascist party, the KPD."

Organisation Consul (O.C.) was an ultra-nationalist and anti-Semitic terrorist organization that operated in the Weimar Republic from 1920 to 1922. It was formed by members of the disbanded Freikorps group Marine Brigade Ehrhardt and was responsible for political assassinations that had the ultimate goal of destroying the Republic and replacing it with a right-wing dictatorship. Its two most prominent victims were the former finance minister Matthias Erzberger and Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau. The group was banned by the German government in 1922.

The Roter Frontkämpferbund, usually called the Rotfrontkämpferbund (RFB), was a far-left paramilitary organization affiliated with the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) during the Weimar Republic. A legally registered association, the RFB was banned in 1929 but continued its work illegally.

The Black Reichswehr was the unofficial name for the extra-legal paramilitary formation that was secretly a part of the German military (Reichswehr) during the early years of the Weimar Republic. It was formed in 1921 after the government banned the Freikorps that it had relied on until then to supplement the Reichswehr. General Hans von Seeckt thought that the Reichswehr no longer had enough men available to guard the country's borders, but the army could not be expanded because of the manpower restrictions imposed on it by the Treaty of Versailles. In order to circumvent the limitation, Seeckt created the Black Reichswehr as purportedly civilian "labour battalions" attached to regular Reichswehr units. The Arbeitskommandos received military training, provisioning and orders from the Reichswehr, although ultimately they were never involved in military action. The Black Reichswehr reached a peak membership estimated at 50,000 to 80,000 in 1923 and was dissolved the same year after a group of its members launched the failed Küstrin Putsch. Its existence became widely known in 1925 when its practice of Fememord, the extra-judicial killing of "traitors" among its ranks, was revealed to the public.

The Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold was an organization in Germany during the Weimar Republic with the goal to defend German parliamentary democracy against internal subversion and extremism from the left and right and to compel the population to respect and honor the new Republic's flag and constitution. It was formed by members of the left-wing Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), the centre-right to right-wing German Centre Party, and the centrist German Democratic Party in February 1924.

Carl Wilhelm Severing was a German union organizer and Social Democratic politician during the German Empire, Weimar Republic and the early post-World War II years in West Germany. He served as a Reichstag member and as interior minister in both Prussia and at the Reich level where he fought against the rise of extremism on both the left and the right. He remained in Germany during the Third Reich but had only minimal influence on reshaping the Social Democratic Party after World War II.

The Ruhr uprising or March uprising (Märzaufstand) was a left-wing workers' revolt in the Ruhr region of Germany in March 1920. It initially took place in support of the call for a general strike issued by the Social Democrat members of the German government, the unions, and other parties in response to the right-wing Kapp Putsch of 13 March 1920.

Germany saw significant political violence from the fall of the Empire and the rise of the Republic through the German Revolution of 1918–1919, until the rise of the Nazi Party to power with 1933 elections and the proclamation of the Enabling Act of 1933 that fully broke down all opposition. The violence was characterised by assassinations by and confrontations between right-wing groups such as the Freikorps, and left-wing organisations such as the Communist Party of Germany.

The Feme murders were extrajudicial killings that took place during the early years of the Weimar Republic. They were carried out primarily by far-right groups against individuals, often their own members, who were thought to have betrayed them.

References

Notes

1 2 Bucher, Peter (January 1971). "Zur Geschichte der Einwohnerwehren in Preußen 1918–1921" [On the History of Citizens' Defense in Prussia 1918–1921]. Militaergeschichtliche Zeitschrift (in German). 9 (1): 15–60. doi:10.1524/mgzs.1971.9.1.15.
1 2 3 Sammartino, Annemarie (3 March 2021). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.). "Paramilitary Violence". 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War. Freie Universität Berlin. doi:10.15463/ie1418.10398/1.2 . Retrieved 10 July 2024.
↑ Schumann, Dirk (8 October 2014). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.). "Post-war Societies (Germany)". 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War. Freie Universität Berlin. Retrieved 16 July 2014.
↑ Mommsen, Hans (1996). The Rise and Fall of Weimar Democracy. Translated by Forster, Elborg; Jones, Larry Eugene. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-807-82249-4.
↑ Wilson, Tim (2010). Frontiers of Violence. Conflict and Identity in Ulster and Upper Silesia 1918-1922. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-199-58371-3.
1 2 3 Scriba, Arnulf (1 September 2014). "Freikorps". Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 21 July 2024.
↑ Bucholtz, Mattheis (7 July 2017). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.). "Freikorps". 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War. Freie Universität Berlin. Retrieved 10 July 2024.
↑ Jones, Nigel (2004). A brief history of the birth of the Nazis (Rev. & updated ed.). London: Robinson. p. 270. ISBN 1-84119-925-7. OCLC 224053608.
↑ Zeitschrift für Militärgeschichte. Volume 3 1964[Journal of Military History. Volume 3 1964] (in German). Berlin: Deutscher Militärverlag. 1964. p. 33.
↑ Thoß, Bruno (25 January 2024). "Einwohnerwehren, 1919–1921". Historisches Lexikon Bayerns (in German). Retrieved 20 July 2024.
↑ Asmuss, Burkhard (14 September 2014). "Der Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten" [The Steel Helmet, League of Front-Line Soldiers]. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 22 July 2024.
↑ Leicht, Johannes (25 June 2015). "Der Deutschvölkische Schutz- und Trutzbund" [German Nationalist Protection and Defiance Federation]. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 22 July 2024.
↑ "SA". Encyclopedia Britannica. 14 May 2024. Retrieved 22 July 2024.
↑ Zelnhefer, Siegfried (8 September 2021). "Deutscher Kampfbund, 1923". Historisches Lexikon Bayerns (in German). Retrieved 23 July 2024.
↑ "The Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold at a Mass Rally in Potsdam (October 26, 1924)". German History in Documents and Images (GHDI). Retrieved 23 July 2024.
↑ "Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold". Geschichtswerkstatt in der SPD Schleswig-Holstein (in German). 26 May 2024. Retrieved 23 July 2024.
↑ Elsbach, Sebastian (2 April 2019). "Die Eiserne Front" [The Iron Front]. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 23 July 2023.
↑ "Jungdeutscher Orden, Bruderschaften Leer und Rheiderland" [Young German Order, Leer and Rheiderland Brotherhoods]. Archivportal-D (in German). 27 January 2023. Retrieved 25 July 2024.
↑ Asmuss, Burkhard (8 June 2011). "Der Rote Frontkämpferbund" [The Red Front Fighters' League]. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 23 July 2024.
↑ Kater, Michael H. (2004). "Make Way, You Old Ones!". Hitler Youth. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 7.
↑ Mühldorfer, Friedbert (27 April 1922). "Kampfbund gegen den Faschismus, 1930–1933". Historisches Lexikon Bayerns (in German). Retrieved 24 July 2024.
↑ Pieroth, Stephan (1994). Parteien und Presse in Rheinland-Pfalz 1945–1971: ein Beitrag zur Mediengeschichte unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Mainzer SPD-Zeitung 'Die Freiheit'[Political Party and Press in Rhineland-Palatinate 1945–1971: A Contribution to Media History with Special Consideration of the Mainz SPD Newspaper 'Die Freiheit'] (in German). Mainz: v. Hase & Koehler Verlag. p. 96. ISBN 978-3-775-81326-6.
↑ "Kämpfe der "Roten Ruhrarmee"" [Battles of the "Ruhr Red Army"]. Bundesarchiv (in German). Retrieved 24 July 2024.
↑ Rübner, Hartmut. "Freiheit und Brot. 11. Der Anarchosyndikalismus als soziokulturelle Bewegung abseits gewerkschaftlicher Zusammenhänge" [Freedom and Bread. 11. Anarcho-syndicalism as a Socio-cultural Movement outside of Trade Union Context]. Datenbank des deutschsprachigen Anarchismus (in German). Retrieved 2024-07-24.

Bibliography

Koepp, Roy G. (2010). Conservative Radicals: The Einwohnerwehr, Bund Bayern Und Reich, and the Limits of Paramilitary Politics in Bavaria, 1918–1928 (PhD thesis). Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska.
Payne, Stanley G. (1995). The History of Fascism, 1914–1945 . Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0299148744.
Rosenhaft, Eve (1983). Beating the Fascists?: The German Communists and Political Violence 1929-1933. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521089388.

Further reading

Waite, Robert G. L. (1952) Vanguard of Nazism: The Free Corps Movement in Postwar Germany 1918-1923, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

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[:4-1] 1 2 Bucher, Peter (January 1971). "Zur Geschichte der Einwohnerwehren in Preußen 1918–1921" [On the History of Citizens' Defense in Prussia 1918–1921]. Militaergeschichtliche Zeitschrift (in German). 9 (1): 15–60. doi:10.1524/mgzs.1971.9.1.15.

[:0-2] 1 2 3 Sammartino, Annemarie (3 March 2021). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.). "Paramilitary Violence". 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War. Freie Universität Berlin. doi:10.15463/ie1418.10398/1.2 . Retrieved 10 July 2024.

[3] Schumann, Dirk (8 October 2014). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.). "Post-war Societies (Germany)". 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War. Freie Universität Berlin. Retrieved 16 July 2014.

[:2-4] Mommsen, Hans (1996). The Rise and Fall of Weimar Democracy. Translated by Forster, Elborg; Jones, Larry Eugene. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-807-82249-4.

[5] Wilson, Tim (2010). Frontiers of Violence. Conflict and Identity in Ulster and Upper Silesia 1918-1922. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-199-58371-3.

[:3-6] 1 2 3 Scriba, Arnulf (1 September 2014). "Freikorps". Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 21 July 2024.

[:1-7] Bucholtz, Mattheis (7 July 2017). Daniel, Ute; Gatrell, Peter; Janz, Oliver; Jones, Heather; Keene, Jennifer; Kramer, Alan; Nasson, Bill (eds.). "Freikorps". 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War. Freie Universität Berlin. Retrieved 10 July 2024.

[Jones_2004_p270-8] Jones, Nigel (2004). A brief history of the birth of the Nazis (Rev. & updated ed.). London: Robinson. p. 270. ISBN 1-84119-925-7. OCLC 224053608.

[9] Zeitschrift für Militärgeschichte. Volume 3 1964[Journal of Military History. Volume 3 1964] (in German). Berlin: Deutscher Militärverlag. 1964. p. 33.

[10] Thoß, Bruno (25 January 2024). "Einwohnerwehren, 1919–1921". Historisches Lexikon Bayerns (in German). Retrieved 20 July 2024.

[11] Asmuss, Burkhard (14 September 2014). "Der Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten" [The Steel Helmet, League of Front-Line Soldiers]. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 22 July 2024.

[12] Leicht, Johannes (25 June 2015). "Der Deutschvölkische Schutz- und Trutzbund" [German Nationalist Protection and Defiance Federation]. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 22 July 2024.

[13] "SA". Encyclopedia Britannica. 14 May 2024. Retrieved 22 July 2024.

[14] Zelnhefer, Siegfried (8 September 2021). "Deutscher Kampfbund, 1923". Historisches Lexikon Bayerns (in German). Retrieved 23 July 2024.

[15] "The Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold at a Mass Rally in Potsdam (October 26, 1924)". German History in Documents and Images (GHDI). Retrieved 23 July 2024.

[16] "Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold". Geschichtswerkstatt in der SPD Schleswig-Holstein (in German). 26 May 2024. Retrieved 23 July 2024.

[17] Elsbach, Sebastian (2 April 2019). "Die Eiserne Front" [The Iron Front]. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 23 July 2023.

[18] "Jungdeutscher Orden, Bruderschaften Leer und Rheiderland" [Young German Order, Leer and Rheiderland Brotherhoods]. Archivportal-D (in German). 27 January 2023. Retrieved 25 July 2024.

[19] Asmuss, Burkhard (8 June 2011). "Der Rote Frontkämpferbund" [The Red Front Fighters' League]. Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German). Retrieved 23 July 2024.

[20] Kater, Michael H. (2004). "Make Way, You Old Ones!". Hitler Youth. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 7.

[21] Mühldorfer, Friedbert (27 April 1922). "Kampfbund gegen den Faschismus, 1930–1933". Historisches Lexikon Bayerns (in German). Retrieved 24 July 2024.

[22] Pieroth, Stephan (1994). Parteien und Presse in Rheinland-Pfalz 1945–1971: ein Beitrag zur Mediengeschichte unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Mainzer SPD-Zeitung 'Die Freiheit'[Political Party and Press in Rhineland-Palatinate 1945–1971: A Contribution to Media History with Special Consideration of the Mainz SPD Newspaper 'Die Freiheit'] (in German). Mainz: v. Hase & Koehler Verlag. p. 96. ISBN 978-3-775-81326-6.

[23] "Kämpfe der "Roten Ruhrarmee"" [Battles of the "Ruhr Red Army"]. Bundesarchiv (in German). Retrieved 24 July 2024.

[24] Rübner, Hartmut. "Freiheit und Brot. 11. Der Anarchosyndikalismus als soziokulturelle Bewegung abseits gewerkschaftlicher Zusammenhänge" [Freedom and Bread. 11. Anarcho-syndicalism as a Socio-cultural Movement outside of Trade Union Context]. Datenbank des deutschsprachigen Anarchismus (in German). Retrieved 2024-07-24.

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