Women's suffrage in New Jersey

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Women's Political Union of New Jersey Women's Political Union of New Jersey.jpg
Women's Political Union of New Jersey

Suffrage was available to most women and African Americans in New Jersey immediately upon the formation of the state. The first New Jersey state constitution (of 1776) allowed any person who owned a certain value of property to become a voter. In 1790, the state constitution was changed to specify that voters were "he or she". Politicians seeking office deliberately courted women voters who often decided narrow elections. This was so the Democratic-Republican Party had an advantage in the presidential election of 1808. [ citation needed ]

Contents

Under the auspices of election reform, in 1807 a "progressive" law was passed which abolished the property requirement for voting, boosting the number of eligible voters, while explicitly barring women and black voters. The law allowed the Democratic-Republican party to win the state in the 1808 United States presidential election under the new direct electoral system. [1] Like many women in other states, New Jersey women became involved in the abolition movement and several prominent abolitionists who later became suffragists lived in the state. One of the early suffrage protests took place when Lucy Stone refused to pay her property taxes in 1857 under the Revolutionary slogan of "taxation without representation".

After the Civil War, some suffrage groups formed and women began to engage in protest voting. African American women formed separate groups to help push for suffrage in their communities. In the late 1880s, a rural school suffrage bill that affected communities with open meetings, was passed, allowing some women limited access to vote. A series of state court cases were filed on different accounts in regards to voting, further muddying the law. In the early 20th century, suffragists in New Jersey grew in numbers and became bolder. They staged meetings, held parades, and other types of publicity stunts to raise awareness for women's suffrage. Most of the different suffrage groups worked together in cooperatives and pushed for a women's suffrage amendment.

In 1915, they had the change to campaign for a voter referendum on the amendment to the New Jersey state constitution. Despite the hard push, the amendment did not pass. Suffragists continued the fight in the state, with the notable addition of the Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage (CU), started by New Jersey's Alice Paul. The CU was later known as the National Woman's Party (NWP) and many New Jersey members acted as Silent Sentinels, protesting in Washington, D.C. They were pushing for a federal suffrage amendment which New Jersey ratified on February 10, 1920.

Early history

Women's suffrage in New Jersey from Frank Leslie's Popular Monthly February 1877 Women's suffrage in New Jersey from Frank Leslie's Popular Monthly February 1877.jpg
Women's suffrage in New Jersey from Frank Leslie's Popular Monthly February 1877

Some women enjoyed early suffrage in New Jersey. The state constitution specified that any woman or man who could meet the property requirement set by law could vote. [2] This was a deliberate part of liberal sentiment in the state to allow many different groups of people the right to vote. [3] [4] [5] New Jersey specifically set the property value low and included African Americans and other groups of people as eligible voters. [3] Married women were not allowed to vote, but widows and unmarried women with property could. [6] The inclusion of women voting early in New Jersey's history was a "radical" effort to extend "Revolutionary doctrine to its furthest—but logical—extreme." [7] A refinement of the original wording specified that voters were considered "he or she," and this change took place in 1790. [8] [9]

In 1797, the law was extended to allow women to vote in six New Jersey counties that were not originally included in 1790 change. [10] That year, on October 18, an early women's suffrage poem was published in the Newark Centinel of Freedom. [11] The same paper printed a letter from a state legislator that said that it was intentionally written into the state constitution that all women of all races should have the right to vote. [11] The role of women in the 1800 election of Thomas Jefferson was noticed by the New Jersey press. [11] Alexander Hamilton and Senator Matthias Ogden included women during their campaigning in parts of New Jersey. [12] Many politicians of the time included get out the vote campaigns that also targeted women. [13]

Allowing women to vote remained controversial because some people worried that Revolutionary thought and ideas could go too far. [14] In response to Abigail Adams writing in approval of women voters, her husband, John Adams, wondered "how far Revolutionary principles should be extended." [15] One lawmaker wrote disapprovingly in a newspaper, "Our constitution gives the right to maids and widows, white and black." [8]

Women voters became convenient scapegoats to blame for candidate's losses. [11] Women were sometimes called "petticoat electors" and were considered to be easy to manipulate and generally incompetent. [8] The Federalists also believed that denying women the right to vote would help them politically against the Republicans in New Jersey. [16] Newspapers started reporting that women often decided elections with slim margins. [17] In 1802, it was claimed by the loser of an election that he lost because a "married woman and an enslaved woman had illegally cast ballots." [8]

By studying poll lists, it is estimated that between 1797 and 1807 women made up 7.7% of total recorded votes and in some areas, up to 14%. [8] The True American wrote that women may have made up 25% of the vote in 1802. [13]

Women of the time expressed their political ideas in newspapers, some writing under the names "Mary Meanwell," "Miss Bannerman," and a "Quaker Woman." [18] As women began to vote in greater numbers after 1797, there were more challenges to the right of women to vote. [19] In 1807, there was a tight election that was "hotly contested" because of fraudulent activity where some voters may have voted more than once, with some men even going so far as to dress as women to perpetrate the fraud. [11] [20] The men who dressed as women to vote fraudulently were not prosecuted for breaking the law. [21] By this time, women voting were seen as a "political liability rather than a political asset." [5]

The first attempt to take away women's and African-Americans' right to vote was written up in 1802 as "An Act Relating to Female Suffrage" by William Pennington. [22] After some debate, Pennington's act was withdrawn. [23] In 1807, John Condit, who had only won his position by a narrow margin, introduced another act to overturn the right of women and black people to vote in New Jersey. [24] African Americans in Lawnside and Gouldtown continued to agitate against this change, not only immediately after passage, but also in the decades following. [24] Because the statute removed the need for men to prove a property requirement before voting it was "billed as progressive reform." [25] Under the auspices of "election reform" and "anti-corruption," women and black people lost the right to vote. [11] [21] There were no challenges to the law by women or African-Americans before the New Jersey constitution was revised. [26] Some white women may have supported the loss of the vote for themselves because it also meant that African-Americans and immigrants could not vote, either. [27] Later, in the 1910s, suffragists argued that stripping the rights of women and black people was done by a "corrupt legislature." [28]

Continued efforts

During the 1830s, many New Jersey women became involved in the abolition movement. [29] Sarah and Angelina Grimké moved with Angelina's husband, Theodore Dwight Weld, to New Jersey in the late 1830s. [30] They met Elizabeth Cady Stanton when she and her husband, Henry Brewster Stanton came to visit. [31] Cady Stanton learned a lot about ongoing reform efforts during this visit. [29]

In 1844, New Jersey wrote a new Constitution which explicitly denied women and African Americans the right to vote. [32] On June 18, 1844, an attempt to include women's suffrage was asked by John C. Ten Eyck, who had a petition from Burlington. [33] The petition was read and not acted on. [33]

By 1847, feminist discussions on married women's property rights were taking place in New Jersey. [34] By 1851, married women were able to receive life insurance benefits. [35] The next year, a limited act to let married women have control over property was passed. [36]

During the Pennsylvania Women's Convention at West Chester in 1852, many New Jersey suffragists attended. [37] John Pierpont spoke about the early rights of New Jersey women to vote during the Women's Rights Convention in Rochester in 1853. [38] A petition for changing the laws of the state to declare that women and men were equal under the law was given to the state legislature by Henry Lafetra, a Monmouth Assemblyman in 1854. [39] The response from the legislature was that women "should accept their subservient role." [39] A few years later in 1857, Harriet Lafetra started another petition from Monmouth County for women's rights and the right to vote, which met with a similar response. [39] In the spring of the same year, Lucy Stone and Henry Browne Blackwell moved to Orange. [39] Stone refused to pay her property taxes that year in November on the grounds that it was "taxation without representation." [39] Because Stone didn't pay her taxes, some of her personal possessions were sold at auction on 1858. [40]

When the Civil War broke out in 1861, women's suffrage activities largely ceased in the state. [41]

After the Civil War

Susan Pecker Fowler Susan Pecker Fowler.jpg
Susan Pecker Fowler

In December 1866, Stone and Blackwell encouraged the formation of the Vineland Equal Suffrage Association, which supported both women's and African-American suffrage. [41] The next year, in November, the New Jersey Woman Suffrage Association (NJWSA) was formed in Vineland with Lucy Stone as a leader. [42] [43] Vineland was very much a hotbed of political activity at the time. [41] In early 1867, Stone and Antoinette Brown Blackwell created a petition to send to the New Jersey legislature to remove the words "white male" from the voting qualifications in the state constitution. [44] Stone also testified in front of a legislative committee on universal suffrage for both black people and women. [44] Her speech was published and shared throughout the state. [44]

On March 10, 1868, inspired by Stone, Portia Gage attempted to vote. [45] The next November, on the third, 172 women in Vineland, including four black women, attempted to vote. [45] The Vineland ballot box for women was created by teacher and farmer, Susan Pecker Fowler, who made it from blueberry cartons and green fabric. [46] The point of the exercise was to publicize the idea that women did want to vote. [47] Lucy Stone and her mother-in-law also attempted the same thing in Newark. [45] Fowler also wrote the first of around 40 annual letters to the editor in protest of women's disenfranchisement. [45]

After Stone moved to Boston in 1869 the suffrage group she started dissolved. [43] [48] During the 1870s, women in New Jersey participated in further protest votes. In 1872, National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) encouraged women to vote to "test the word 'citizen' in the Fourteenth Amendment." [49] Elizabeth Cady Stanton also attempted to vote on November 2, 1880, in Tenafly. [50]

As New Jersey worked to change the state constitution in the 1870s, suffragists petitioned the constitutional convention planning committee to remove the requirement that voters be male. [51] In 1875, the state Constitution was amended to only remove the word "white" from the list of requirements to be a voter. [51] Phebe Hanaford, a Universalist preacher in the state, complained that "At the present time the Constitution of our State is in strict accordance with the statement, viz, that all persons may become voters except lunatics, criminals, idiots, and women." [49]

In the early 1880s, the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) grew in New Jersey, especially among African-American women who formed separate groups and committees. [52] Therese Walling Seabrook worked with the WCTU of New Jersey and helped push it towards affirming women's suffrage. [53] Seabrook worked on the New Jersey WCTU's legislative committee and learned effective strategies for conducting petition drives and lobbying the legislature. [54] In 1884, Seabrook and suffragists Henry Blackwell and Phebe Hanaford began to work together and were able to get some support for women's suffrage from state legislators. [55]

In February 1887, William Miller Baird introduced a bill to allow all people, regardless of race or sex to vote in school meetings. [56] In a surprise move, the New Jersey legislature unanimously passed a rural school suffrage bill in 1887. [49] The new law would only affect women who lived in areas, mostly rural, that voted in open meetings. [57] Cities with formal elections could still block women from voting. [57] In September 1887, Seabrook and Lillie Devereux Blake encouraged women to protest vote in the next election, however it is unknown if any women tried to actually protest vote that year. [58]

In 1890, the New Jersey Woman Suffrage Association (NJWSA) reorganized with the help of Mary Dudley Hussey and elected Judge John Whitehead as the president. [59] [60] This group not only advocated for full women's suffrage, but also encouraged women to vote in school elections. [61] They also began to work more closely with the New Jersey WCTU and the New Jersey Grange on suffrage issues. [62]

The state of women's ability to vote in different elections continued to be challenged in the courts in New Jersey. In 1893, a law passed in the state allowed any freeholder, which could include women, the right to vote for local road commissioners. [63] Women's right to vote for the road commissioners was challenged through the case, Allison v. Blake. [64] William Outis Allison who ran for road commissioner and lost, claimed that his opponent, Clinton Hamlin Blake, had won due to illegal voting. [65] Allison claimed that the women's votes were invalid. [65] The Supreme Court of New Jersey ruled in this case on June 11, 1894, that women's votes were "unconstitutional under the 1844 New Jersey Constitution. [64] There were continued efforts to get women out to vote and just as much opposition to women voting in school elections. [66] The state Attorney General, John P. Stockton, issued a formal statement on June 13, 1894, that women's right to vote for school election issues was not affected by the supreme court decision in Allison v. Blake. [66] The case of Kimball v. Hendee took issue with women's votes being rejected during a school election on July 27, 1894, and the courts decided in November 1894 that women voting in school elections was unconstitutional. [67] Landis v. Ashworth was focused on an issue in 1893 were women had voted during a school meeting that included a tax levy. [67] In this case, decided in February 1895, it was decided that women could vote in school meetings for everything except electing school trustees. [67]

The campaign for the 1894 New York constitutional amendment for women's suffrage also had a positive effect on people in New Jersey. [68] NJWSA president, Florence Howe Hall hoped that this ruling might inspire more people to advocate for full women's suffrage in the state. [61] Due to legislators' opposition to full suffrage, NJWSA decided to embark on restoring school suffrage. [61] The year 1895 was the beginning of the New Jersey suffragists' effort to restore women's right to vote in school-related elections. [68] During this year, NJWSA, working with the Jersey City Woman's Club, supported women's right to become lawyers. [61] Their work enabled Mary Philbrook to become the first woman admitted to the New Jersey bar. [61] Later Philbrook became legal counsel to the NJWSA. [61]

In September 1897, the effort to pass the school suffrage bill failed. [61] This slowed down suffrage efforts in New Jersey again. [69]

Reinvigorating the fight

Votes for Women New Jersey c. 1914 Votes for Women New Jersey c. 1914.jpg
Votes for Women New Jersey c. 1914

In the early 20th century, Harriot Stanton Blatch in New York was able to create a movement of suffragists that included working women. [69] Minola Graham Sexton, who served as president of NJWSA, began to hold suffrage meetings in Ocean Grove in 1902. [70] Sexton also began to give women's suffrage speeches at women's clubs and the New Jersey WCTU, starting in 1904. [71] New Jersey suffragists held a memorial suffrage meeting in Orange in 1906 in honor of the death of Susan B. Anthony. [72] Mina Van Winkle, a friend of Blatch, started the Equality League for Self-Supporting Women of New Jersey (ELSSWNJ) in 1908 which would later be known as the Women's Political Union of New Jersey (WPU). [69] [73] [74] That same year, Clara Schlee Laddey, a more modern leader took over the NJWSA. [69] In 1909, Emma O. Gantz and Martha Klatschken formed the Progressive Woman Suffrage Society which held the state's first open air meetings. [75]

Sophia Loebinger gave a speech in Palisades Amusement Park in 1909 where she discussed the influence that Native Americans had in suffrage issues and brought three Iroquois people with her. [76] In 1910, Blatch organized a parade in New York City in which New Jersey suffragists also participated. [77] The next year, the parade in New York City was even larger and attracted between 80 and 100 suffragists from New Jersey. [78]

In 1910, the Equal Franchise Society of New Jersey (EFSNJ) was organized in Hoboken with the national founder of the Equal Franchise Society, Katherine Duer Mackay present. [78] [79] Around 200 women joined the group. [79] The EFSNJ was made up of prominent and wealthy women living in the state and was based on the New York Equal Franchise League. [80] The New Jersey Men's League for Equal Suffrage also formed in 1910. [78] Lillian Feickert and Miss Pope helped increase the number of members of NJWSA in Jersey City by 1,400 just by canvassing door to door. [81] EFSNJ began a campaign in 1911 to educate women on the importance of equal suffrage. [82]

In November 1911, lawyer, Mary Philbrook, went with a teacher from Newark, Harriet Carpenter, who attempted to register to vote. [83] Philbrook went on to file a case to challenge the "exclusion of women from NJ suffrage." [83] In the case, Carpenter v. Cornish, she argued that the 1844 state constitution "illegally deprived" women of their voting rights in the state. [83] Philbrook took on the case to bring publicity to women's suffrage issues and the case went on to be "highly-publicized." [83] Philbrook's case was rejected on April 11, 1912, by the Supreme Court of New Jersey with the court upholding the limitation on suffrage. [84] The opinion said that "women had not been authorized to vote under the constitution of 1776." [85] The opinion also cited Minor v. Happersett , where the Supreme Court of the United States decided "that the constitution of the United States does not confer the right of suffrage upon anyone." [86]

At the end of 1911, NJWSA and other suffrage groups in New Jersey worked to create a legislative committee. [87] [88] A women's suffrage amendment was brought up again in the state legislature in January 1912 by Senator William C. Gebhardt. [83] Gebhardt's daughters were active in the NJWSA and also in the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU). [83] The legislature held a public hearing on the amendment on March 13, 1912. [83] [89] There were around six hundred suffragists and anti-suffragists attending the hearing. [83] Working woman, Melilnda Scott, participated in the hearing, marking the first time a prominent labor activist joined the suffragists in New Jersey. [90] Several people, including Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Laddys, Linton Satterthwaite, Rhea Vickers, and Fanny Garrison Villard all testified on behalf of women's suffrage. [91] George Vickers addressed the hearing and said that "No state had ever taken from women the right to vote once it had been given them, excepting New Jersey." [83] The amendment did not pass both houses. [92]

The Equality League, run by Van Winkle, changed their name to the Women's Political Union of New Jersey (WPUNJ) and affiliated with NJWSA in 1912. [92] This group did outreach to Catholic women and working women, including the Women's Trade Union League. [92] Van Winkle included working women including both professionals and blue-collar workers. [93] The WPUNJ had more modern suffrage tactics, planning speeches, suffrage events, and parades. [94] The group planned a "Caravan hike" which toured through 41 different towns throughout New Jersey. [95]

WPUNJ and NJWSA collaborated on a parade that was held on October 26, 1912, in Newark. [96] There were between 800 and 1,000 men and women marching with banners, a band, and a police escort. [96] Antoinette Brown Blackwell participated in the parade and was billed as the "oldest suffragist in the United States." [96] After the parade, Van Winkle headed a mass meeting. [96]

In 1912, Alice Paul became co-chair of the Congressional Committee of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA). [97] Paul, who was a Quaker from New Jersey learned militant suffrage tactics in England. [97] She moved to Washington D.C. and rented a basement room to house the NAWSA committee. [98] By April 1913, Paul and Lucy Burns started the Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage (CU) to lobby for a federal suffrage amendment. [99] NAWSA removed Paul and Burns from the Congressional Committee and the CU became independent. [100] In July 1913, Mabel Vernon spoke throughout New Jersey and helped secure thousands of names for a women's suffrage petition to the U.S. Senate. [101]

During 1913, the New Jersey joint legislative committee for women's suffrage, made up of multiple suffrage groups, continued pressing for a state women's suffrage amendment. [102] In February 1913, a "Votes for Women Special" train left Newark to carry suffrage supporters to Trenton to attend the hearing of the bill. [103] An amendment for women's suffrage passed the New Jersey state legislature in the spring of 1913. [104] However, issues with the wording were discovered on March 27, and so it had to be rewritten and passed again. [105] After this first passage, to become an amendment, it would have to pass again in the next legislative session. [106] It also had to be posted in "designated newspapers" in each county of the state. [106] However, the proposed amendment wasn't published before August 4 when it should have been. [106] This voided the bill and the suffragists would have to try again in the next legislative session. [107] Governor James Fairman Fielder blamed his secretary for forgetting him to send the information to the newspapers on time. [108] The situation enraged many activists. [109]

After the state suffrage convention held in November 1913, a delegation of 75 suffragists met with President-elect Woodrow Wilson, who was the former governor of New Jersey, to request his support of the federal women's suffrage amendment. [110] President Wilson said that "he was giving the matter careful consideration and hoped soon to take a decided stand." [111] On March 3, 1913, Paul organized the Woman Suffrage Procession which drew around 7,000 women to march through Washington, D.C. the day before the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson. [97] [112] Later in March, Paul led a delegation of suffragists to meet with the president to support women's suffrage. [98] Wilson said that he hadn't thought much about equal suffrage, but would consider the issue carefully. [98] In mid-November 1913, a delegation of 73 New Jersey activists attempted to meet with the president. [113] Despite getting help from state representative Walter I. McCoy, they were unable to get an appointment with President Wilson. [113] When they weren't able to see him through usual channels, Paul decided they would see the president anyway. [114] The delegation of suffragists marched to the White House where President Wilson did meet with them and talked to them about starting a Suffrage Committee in the House of Representatives. [114] [115]

In 1914, NJWSA opened up a new office in Plainfield. [116] Another amendment bill for equal suffrage passed in the state legislature early in the year. [117]

The 1915 campaign

Suffragist with a canal worker during the 1915 New Jersey referendum campaign Suffragist with a canal worker during the 1915 New Jersey referendum.jpg
Suffragist with a canal worker during the 1915 New Jersey referendum campaign

On May 6, 1915, the amendment bill was passed a second time. [117] The state suffrage groups created a Cooperative Committee and set up branch headquarters throughout the state. [117] A New Jersey Suffrage Press Committee was organized to send press releases and information to journalists. [118] They also created banners and other forms of advertisement around the state. [118] Elizabeth Colby, leader of the EFSNJ, raised money for the Press Committee. [118] Other forms of publicity included using baseball games to promote suffrage and the usage of a "suffrage camel." [119]

Activists organized their efforts into counties and political districts. [117] Outreach efforts and canvassing took place on a large scale. [117] The WPU didn't limit their outreach to white women and included German-speaking and African American women in their efforts. [117] They also brought in suffrage campaigners to speak to factory workers during lunch. [117] Around 1,000 outdoor meetings were held and an estimated 20,000 pieces of literature were handed out every day. [118] Campaign events were "extensively covered in national magazines and newspapers." [119]

Anna Howard Shaw lobbied President Wilson to support women's suffrage efforts in New Jersey in 1915. [120] John Cotton Dana, W. E. B. Du Bois, Thomas Edison, John Franklin Fort, Theodore Roosevelt, and eventually, President Wilson, came out in support of women's suffrage in New Jersey during this campaign. [121] [118] [122] [123] The State Federation of Labor, however, refused to support the suffrage amendment, and Melinda Scott of the Hat Trimmers Union of Newark refused to affiliate with the state group because of this. [122]

As a publicity stunt, the Suffrage Torch was used in the suffrage campaigns in both New York and New Jersey. [124] The torch was taken around New York and then handed off in middle the Hudson River to Mina Van Winkle of the WPU. [124] Lillian Feickert organized a "Flying Suffrage Squadron." [124] The Squadron toured throughout Middlesex County and held meetings in different locations. [125] New York suffragists also helped the effort, canvassing commuters from New Jersey on the Hudson ferries and conducting get out the vote efforts. [126]

NJWSA held an event on August 13 in Orange to celebrate the birth of Lucy Stone and her tax protest there. [119] Alice Stone Blackwell, John Franklin Fort, and Shaw attended the event. [119] Shaw brought her yellow roadster, Eastern Victory, and drove it in the parade that was held afterwards. [119]

The election was held on October 19, 1915, and had a high voter turnout. [127] [128] Some suffragists claimed that anti-suffragists, especially James R. Nugent, had brought in voters from New York to defeat the amendment. [129] Women, including black women served as poll watchers at the majority of the state's polling places. [127] The amendment was defeated by more than 51,000 votes and did especially poorly in urban areas. [130] After the loss of the women's suffrage amendment, Mary Garrett Hay said that "If the women had had a fair vote it would have been wonderful." [131]

The fight continues

Alison Turnbull Hopkins' car in 1916. Mrs. J.A.H. Hopkins' car 160012v.jpg
Alison Turnbull Hopkins' car in 1916.

On December 1, 1915, a chapter of the Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage (CU) was formed in New Jersey with Alison Turnbull Hopkins serving as the president. [132] The temporary headquarters for the CU were in Morristown. [133] Feickert, involved with the NJWSA, was unhappy that another new suffrage organization had set up in New Jersey. [134] The NJWSA outlined a new direction for the group at its annual convention in January 1916. [127]

In February 1916, the Joint Legislative Committee was able to convince the state legislature to submit a presidential suffrage bill, however, it did not pass the state senate. [130] In 1917, another presidential suffrage bill was introduced, but never made it out of committee. [130] By spring of 1917, the New Jersey State Federation of Women's Clubs (NJSFWC) finally endorsed women's suffrage. [135]

The Eastern Campaign of the CU held a mass meeting in Atlantic City to discuss their opposition towards Democratic members of the government who were blocking the federal suffrage amendment. [136] By March 1917, the CU changed their name to the National Woman's Party (NWP) New Jersey branch. [132] Members of the NWP picketed the White House as "Silent Sentinels." [132] NWP members represented their state on New Jersey Day, picketing the White House as well as participating in a mass picket of around 1,000 women. [137] [132]

As the United States voted to enter World War I, NAWSA leaders decided that suffragists would help support the war effort. [138] The NJWSA began to work on patriotic tasks to support the effort in WWI and were the first group to offer their services to the New Jersey governor to help with the war effort. [139] [140] Feickert became a vice-chair on the New Jersey Women's Committee of the Council of National Defense where she represented NJSWA. [139] Paul and NWP continued to picket the White House despite the US entry into the war, and emphasized that it was hypocritical to go to war for democracy when women in the US could not vote. [138]

As a federal women's suffrage amendment began to make headway in early 1918 in the United States House of Representatives, NJSFWC resolved to put pressure on President Wilson to influence members of his party to vote for the bill in the United States Senate. [141] In New Jersey, suffragists campaigned for pro-suffrage candidates with some real success. [142] The vote on the federal amendment in the U.S. Senate was lost by only one vote on February 10, 1919, when New Jersey Senator David Baird Sr. voted "no." [142] Eventually, the federal suffrage amendment was passed and waited on ratification by 36 states. [142]

Feickert started chairing a new group, the New Jersey Suffrage Ratification Committee (NJSRC), to fight for the state legislature to ratify the Nineteenth Amendment. [143] This group included NJWSA, NJSFWC, the New Jersey Federation of Colored Women's Clubs (NJFCWC), the New Jersey WCTU, and other groups of professional women. [143] The NWP of New Jersey worked to selectively lobby state legislators. [143] Like before, NJSRC used the tactic of supporting pro-suffrage candidates in elections. [143]

In January 1920, the state legislature took up the issue of the federal amendment. [143] It passed the Senate by a large margin on February 2. [143] The debate on the ratification took place in the state assembly on February 9. [143] Suffragists filled the chamber to listen to the debate and early into the night the Assembly passed the resolution on February 10, leading to women celebrating in the halls of the building after the passage. [143] [144] [145]

Suffragists celebrated the ratification formally on April 23 in Newark, where the NJWSA transitioned into the League of Women Voters of New Jersey. [146]

African-American women suffragists in New Jersey

Florence Randolph 1919 FlorenceRandolph1919.tif
Florence Randolph 1919

In the early 1880s, African-American women created their own organizations in New Jersey to promote temperance and which were affiliated with the WCTU. [147] During the annual convention in 1887, the New Jersey WCTU voted to support women's suffrage. [147] White members of the Women's Political Unions did outreach to black women in Newark. [117]

W. E. B. Du Bois publicly supported the 1915 New Jersey campaign, writing in The Crisis , "To say the woman is weaker than man is sheer rot: It is the same sort of thing we hear about the 'darker races' and 'lower classes.'" [118] Mary Church Terrell campaigned in New Jersey in October, urging black men to vote for the women's suffrage amendment. [118] During the 1915 election, black women were also part of the poll watching effort. [127] In a New York Times article, the black poll watchers were blamed for losing the women's suffrage amendment in Atlantic County. [148] The paper wrote, "According to responsible citizens, many voted against suffrage for this reason who might have favored the amendment." [148]

Florence Spearing Randolph was involved with getting the New Jersey State Federation of Colored Women's Clubs (NJFCWC) to affiliate with the NJWSA which took place in November 1917. [149] [135]

Anti-suffragists in New Jersey

During a testimony on women's suffrage held on March 13, 1912, many anti-suffragists came to testify against equal suffrage. [83] Some the speakers included Harriet White Fisher and Minnie Bronson. [91] The anti-suffragists decided to organize after the hearing, creating the New Jersey Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage (NJAOWS) in Trenton on April 14, 1912. [92] The group was an affiliate of the National Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage (NAOWS). [92] The Men's Anti-Suffrage League also opposed suffrage in New Jersey and argued that women did not want the vote. [122] The Dean of Princeton College, William Francis Magie, served as president of the New Jersey Men's Anti-Suffrage League. [150] Magie argued that women's suffrage would disrupt gender roles and "undermine civilization." [150]

Anti-suffragists began to mobilize against the 1915 women's suffrage amendment starting in May 1915. [128] Lillian Feickert, president of the NJWSA accused anti-suffragists of misrepresenting her speech, given in 1915. [151] When the women's suffrage amendment was lost in 1915, anti-suffragists celebrated. [131]

See also

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Silent Sentinels</span> Group of American women suffragists

The Silent Sentinels, also known as the Sentinels of Liberty, were a group of over 2,000 women in favor of women's suffrage organized by Alice Paul and the National Woman's Party, who nonviolently protested in front of the White House during Woodrow Wilson's presidency starting on January 10, 1917. Nearly 500 were arrested, and 168 served jail time. They were the first group to picket the White House. Later, they also protested in Lafayette Square, not stopping until June 4, 1919 when the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was passed both by the House of Representatives and the Senate.

This timeline highlights milestones in women's suffrage in the United States, particularly the right of women to vote in elections at federal and state levels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women's suffrage in states of the United States</span> Womens right to vote in individual states of the United States

Women's suffrage was established in the United States on a full or partial basis by various towns, counties, states and territories during the latter decades of the 19th century and early part of the 20th century. As women received the right to vote in some places, they began running for public office and gaining positions as school board members, county clerks, state legislators, judges, and, in the case of Jeannette Rankin, as a member of Congress.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage</span> Former US political organization

The National Association Opposed to Women Suffrage (NAOWS) was founded in the United States by women opposed to the suffrage movement in 1911. It was the most popular anti-suffrage organization in northeastern cities. NAOWS had influential local chapters in many states, including Texas and Virginia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clara Schlee Laddey</span>

Clara Schlee Laddey was a German-born American suffragist and lecturer on women's rights.

This is a timeline of women's suffrage in New Mexico. Women's suffrage in New Mexico first began with granting women the right to vote in school board elections and was codified into the New Mexico State Constitution, written in 1910. In 1912, New Mexico was a state, and suffragists there worked to support the adoption of a federal women's suffrage amendment to allow women equal suffrage. Even after white women earned the right to vote in 1920, many Native Americans were unable to vote in the state.

The fight for women's suffrage in New Mexico was incremental and had the support of both Hispanic and Anglo women suffragists. When New Mexico was a territory, women had the right to vote in school board elections. When New Mexico created its state constitution in 1910, it continued to allow women to vote in school elections, but it was nearly impossible to modify the constitution for suffrage any further. Women in the state chose to pursue advocating for a federal women's suffrage amendment. They organized among both English and Spanish speaking groups. Many New Mexico politicians supported suffrage on a federal level. Continued advocacy on behalf of suffragists in the state allowed New Mexico to become the 32nd state to ratify the Nineteenth Amendment on February 21, 1920.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timeline of women's suffrage in Ohio</span>

This is a timeline of women's suffrage in Ohio. Women's suffrage activism in Ohio began in earnest around the 1850s, when several women's rights conventions took place around the state. The Ohio Women's Convention was very influential on the topic of women's suffrage, and the second Ohio Women's Convention in Akron, Ohio, featured Sojourner Truth and her famous speech, Ain't I a Woman? Women worked to create organizations and groups to influence politicians on women's suffrage. Several state constitutional amendments for women's suffrage did not pass. However, women in Ohio did get the right to vote in school board elections and in some municipalities before Ohio became the fifth state to ratify the Nineteenth Amendment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women's suffrage in Montana</span>

The women's suffrage movement in Montana started while it was still a territory. The Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was an early organizer that supported suffrage in the state, arriving in 1883. Women were given the right to vote in school board elections and on tax issues in 1887. When the state constitutional convention was held in 1889, Clara McAdow and Perry McAdow invited suffragist Henry Blackwell to speak to the delegates about equal women's suffrage. While that proposition did not pass, women retained their right to vote in school and tax elections as Montana became a state. In 1895, National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) came to Montana to organize local groups. Montana suffragists held a convention and created the Montana Woman's Suffrage Association (MWSA). Suffragists continued to organize, hold conventions and lobby the Montana Legislature for women's suffrage through the end of the nineteenth century. In the early twentieth century, Jeannette Rankin became a driving force around the women's suffrage movement in Montana. By January 1913, a women's suffrage bill had passed the Montana Legislature and went out as a referendum. Suffragists launched an all-out campaign leading up to the vote. They traveled throughout Montana giving speeches and holding rallies. They sent out thousands of letters and printed thousands of pamphlets and journals to hand out. Suffragists set up booths at the Montana State Fair and they held parades. Finally, after a somewhat contested election on November 3, 1914, the suffragists won the vote. Montana became one of eleven states with equal suffrage for most women. When the Nineteenth Amendment was passed, Montana ratified it on August 2, 1919. It wasn't until 1924 with the passage of the Indian Citizenship Act that Native American women gained the right to vote.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women's suffrage in Georgia (U.S. state)</span>

The first women's suffrage group in Georgia, the Georgia Woman Suffrage Association (GWSA), was formed in 1892 by Helen Augusta Howard. Over time, the group, which focused on "taxation without representation" grew and earned the support of both men and women. Howard convinced the National American Women's Suffrage Association (NAWSA) to hold their first convention outside of Washington, D.C., in 1895. The convention, held in Atlanta, was the first large women's rights gathering in the Southern United States. GWSA continued to hold conventions and raise awareness over the next years. Suffragists in Georgia agitated for suffrage amendments, for political parties to support white women's suffrage and for municipal suffrage. In the 1910s, more organizations were formed in Georgia and the number of suffragists grew. In addition, the Georgia Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage also formed an organized anti-suffrage campaign. Suffragists participated in parades, supported bills in the legislature and helped in the war effort during World War I. In 1917 and 1919, women earned the right to vote in primary elections in Waycross, Georgia and in Atlanta respectively. In 1919, after the Nineteenth Amendment went out to the states for ratification, Georgia became the first state to reject the amendment. When the Nineteenth Amendment became the law of the land, women still had to wait to vote because of rules regarding voter registration. White Georgia women would vote statewide in 1922. Native American women and African-American women had to wait longer to vote. Black women were actively excluded from the women's suffrage movement in the state and had their own organizations. Despite their work to vote, Black women faced discrimination at the polls in many different forms. Georgia finally ratified the Nineteenth Amendment on February 20, 1970.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timeline of women's suffrage in Georgia (U.S. state)</span>

This is a timeline of women's suffrage in Georgia. Women's suffrage in Georgia started in earnest with the formation of the Georgia Woman Suffrage Association (GWSA) in 1892. GWSA helped bring the first large women's rights convention to the South in 1895 when the National American Woman's Suffrage Association (NAWSA) held their convention in Atlanta. GWSA was the main source of activism behind women's suffrage until 1913. In that year, several other groups formed including the Georgia Young People's Suffrage Association (GYPSA) and the Georgia Men's League for Woman Suffrage. In 1914, the Georgia Association Opposed to Women's Suffrage (GAOWS) was formed by anti-suffragists. Despite the hard work by suffragists in Georgia, the state continued to reject most efforts to pass equal suffrage. In 1917, Waycross, Georgia allowed women to vote in primary elections and in 1919 Atlanta granted the same. Georgia was the first state to reject the Nineteenth Amendment. Women in Georgia still had to wait to vote statewide after the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified on August 26, 1920. Native American and African American women had to wait even longer to vote. Georgia ratified the Nineteenth Amendment in 1970.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timeline of women's suffrage in Delaware</span>

This is a timeline of women's suffrage in Delaware. Suffragists in Delaware began to fight for women's suffrage in the late 1860s. Mary Ann Sorden Stuart and national suffragists lobbied the Delaware General Assembly for women's suffrage. In 1896, the Delaware Equal Suffrage Association (DESA) was formed. Annual state suffrage conventions were held. There were also numerous attempts to pass an equal suffrage amendment to the Delaware State Constitution, but none were successful. In 1913, a state chapter of the Congressional Union (CU) was opened by Mabel Vernon. Delaware suffragists are involved in more militant tactics, including taking part of the Silent Sentinels. On March 22, 1920, Delaware had a special session of the General Assembly to consider ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment. It was not ratified by Delaware until 1923.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women's suffrage in Hawaii</span>

Women's suffrage began in Hawaii in the 1890s. However, when the Hawaiian Kingdom ruled, women had roles in the government and could vote in the House of Nobles. After the overthrow of Queen Liliʻuokalani in 1893, women's roles were more restricted. Suffragists, Wilhelmine Kekelaokalaninui Widemann Dowsett and Emma Kaili Metcalf Beckley Nakuina, immediately began working towards women's suffrage. The Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) of Hawaii also advocated for women's suffrage in 1894. As Hawaii was being annexed as a US territory in 1899, racist ideas about the ability of Native Hawaiians to rule themselves caused problems with allowing women to vote. Members of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) petitioned the United States Congress to allow women's suffrage in Hawaii with no effect. Women's suffrage work picked up in 1912 when Carrie Chapman Catt visited Hawaii. Dowsett created the National Women's Equal Suffrage Association of Hawai'i that year and Catt promised to act as the delegate for NAWSA. In 1915 and 1916, Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole brought resolutions to the U.S. Congress requesting women's suffrage for Hawaii. While there were high hopes for the effort, it was not successful. In 1919, suffragists around Hawaii met for mass demonstrations to lobby the territorial legislature to pass women's suffrage bills. These were some of the largest women's suffrage demonstrations in Hawaii, but the bills did not pass both houses. Women in Hawaii were eventually franchised through the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women's suffrage in Arizona</span>

The movement for women's suffrage in Arizona began in the late 1800s. After women's suffrage was narrowly voted down at the 1891 Arizona Constitutional Convention, prominent suffragettes such as Josephine Brawley Hughes and Laura M. Johns formed the Arizona Suffrage Association and began touring the state campaigning for women's right to vote. Momentum built throughout the decade, and after a strenuous campaign in 1903, a woman's suffrage bill passed both houses of the legislature but was ultimately vetoed by Governor Alexander Oswald Brodie.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women's suffrage in Maine</span>

While women's suffrage had an early start in Maine, dating back to the 1850s, it was a long, slow road to equal suffrage. Early suffragists brought speakers Susan B. Anthony and Lucy Stone to the state in the mid-1850s. Ann F. Jarvis Greely and other women in Ellsworth, Maine, created a women's rights lecture series in 1857. The first women's suffrage petition to the Maine Legislature was also sent that year. Working-class women began marching for women's suffrage in the 1860s. The Snow sisters created the first Maine women's suffrage organization, the Equal Rights Association of Rockland, in 1868. In the 1870s, a state suffrage organization, the Maine Women's Suffrage Association (MWSA), was formed. Many petitions for women's suffrage were sent to the state legislature. MWSA and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) of Maine worked closely together on suffrage issues. By the late 1880s the state legislature was considering several women's suffrage bills. While women's suffrage did not pass, during the 1890s many women's rights laws were secured. During the 1900s, suffragists in Maine continued to campaign and lecture on women's suffrage. Several suffrage organizations including a Maine chapter of the College Equal Suffrage League and the Men's Equal Rights League were formed in the 1910s. Florence Brooks Whitehouse started the Maine chapter of the National Woman's Party (NWP) in 1915. Suffragists and other clubwomen worked together on a large campaign for a 1917 voter referendum on women's suffrage. Despite the efforts of women around the state, women's suffrage failed. Going into the next few years, a women's suffrage referendum on voting in presidential elections was placed on the September 13, 1920 ballot. But before that vote, Maine ratified the Nineteenth Amendment on November 5, 1920. It was the nineteenth state to ratify. A few weeks after ratification, MWSA dissolved and formed the League of Women Voters (LWV) of Maine. White women first voted in Maine on September 13, 1920. Native Americans in Maine had to wait longer to vote. In 1924, they became citizens of the United States. However, Maine would not allow individuals living on Indian reservations to vote. It was not until the passage of a 1954 equal rights referendum that Native Americans gained the right to vote in Maine. In 1955 Lucy Nicolar Poolaw (Penobscot) was the first Native American living on a reservation in Maine to cast a vote.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women's suffrage in North Dakota</span>

Women's suffrage began in North Dakota when it was still part of the Dakota Territory. During this time activists worked for women's suffrage, and in 1879, women gained the right to vote at school meetings. This was formalized in 1883 when the legislature passed a law where women would use separate ballots for their votes on school-related issues. When North Dakota was writing its state constitution, efforts were made to include equal suffrage for women, but women were only able to retain their right to vote for school issues. An abortive effort to provide equal suffrage happened in 1893, when the state legislature passed equal suffrage for women. However, the bill was "lost," never signed and eventually expunged from the record. Suffragists continued to hold conventions, raise awareness, and form organizations. The arrival of Sylvia Pankhurst in February 1912 stimulated the creation of more groups, including the statewide Votes for Women League. In 1914, there was a voter referendum on women's suffrage, but it did not pass. In 1917, limited suffrage bills for municipal and presidential suffrage were signed into law. On December 1, 1919, North Dakota became the twentieth state to ratify the Nineteenth Amendment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women's suffrage in South Dakota</span>

Women's suffrage started in South Dakota when it was part of Dakota Territory. Prior to 1889, it had a shared history of women's suffrage with North Dakota. While South Dakota was part of the territory, women earned the right to vote on school related issues. They retained this right after it became a separate state. The state constitution specified that there would be a women's suffrage amendment referendum in 1890. Despite a large campaign that included Susan B. Anthony and a state suffrage group, the South Dakota Equal Suffrage Association (SDESA), the referendum failed. The state legislature passed additional suffrage referendums over the years, but each was voted down until 1918. South Dakota was an early ratifier of the Nineteenth Amendment, which was approved during a special midnight legislative session on December 4, 1919.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timeline of women's suffrage in New Jersey</span>

This is a timeline of women's suffrage in New Jersey. Women and African Americans had the right to vote in New Jersey until the state constitution was changed in 1807, disenfranchising all but white men. Any early suffrage protest was taken by Lucy Stone in 1857 who refused to pay her property taxes because she could not vote. Additional attempts to make women more equal under the law took place in the 1880s and 1890s. There were also several court cases that challenged women's right to vote in the state. Eventually, a voter referendum on a state constitutional suffrage amendment took place in 1915, however the measure was voted down. Activists continued to fight both in the state and to protest in Washington, D.C. as Silent Sentinels. By February 10, 1920, New Jersey ratified the Nineteenth Amendment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women's suffrage in Iowa</span>

Efforts toward women's suffrage began early in Iowa's history. During the territory's Constitutional Convention, discussions on both African American and women's suffrage took place. Early on, women's rights were discussed in the state by women such as Amelia Bloomer and petitions for suffrage were sent to the Iowa state legislature. While African American men earned the right to vote in 1868, women from all backgrounds had to continue to agitate for enfranchisement. One of the first suffrage groups was formed in Dubuque in 1869. Not long after, a state suffrage convention was held in Mount Pleasant in 1870. Iowa suffragists focused on organizing and lobbying the state legislature. In 1894, women gained the right to vote on municipal bond and tax issues and also in school elections. These rights were immediately utilized by women who turned out in good numbers to vote on these issues. By the 1910s, the state legislature finally passed in successive sessions a women's suffrage amendment to the state constitution. This resulted in a voter referendum to be held on the issue on June 5, 1916. The campaign included anti-suffrage agitation from liquor interests who claimed that women's suffrage would cause higher taxes. The amendment was defeated, though a subsequent investigation turned up a large amount of fraud. However, the election could not be invalidated and women had to wait to vote. On July 2, 1919, Iowa became the tenth state to ratify the Nineteenth Amendment.

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