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Zhao Kuo (趙括; died 260 BCE) was a general of the state of Zhao during the Warring States period in ancient China. He lost the epic Battle of Changping between the states of Zhao and Qin. [1]
He was the son of the famous general Zhao She.
Zhao Kuo was sent on the orders of King Xiaocheng of Zhao to the battlefield to replace the previous general, the famous commander Lian Po. The king, under the influence of several of his courtiers (many of whom were believed to be bribed by Qin emissaries), and heedless of the advice given by his most important minister, Lin Xiangru, was dissatisfied by Lian's defensive strategy: while Lian Po was in command, he set up camp, built forts, and stayed in them, not responding to any of the enemy's taunts or lures designed to get his army out onto the field. This dragged on for several years, and the king felt that the time for decisive action had come.
According to Records of the Grand Historian , as soon as Zhao Kuo's mother heard that he was going off to the front, she immediately went to the king and told him this tale: one day, when the late Zhao She and Zhao Kuo were talking military tactics and playing Chinese chess, she was amazed to see the son beating the more experienced father every single time. However, Zhao She was not impressed. When asked why, Zhao She said, "This boy treats a battle like a game of chess; his men like mere pawns that can be sacrificed at will. All his tactics are based on the books he read, so he has no idea what real warfare is like! (This developed into the Chinese idiom 紙上談兵 or engaging in "paper warfare".) He can never command an army." However, the legend is largely taken with a grain of salt by historians, who rebut its logic and credibility. Many scholars consider the source to serve as propaganda for the State of Qin.
As stated by Records of the Grand Historian , her tale was ignored by the king. On the other hand, when Bai Qi, who had rejected to lead Qin Army in Changping to siege the fortified defense line engineered by Lian Po, became aware of the replacement, he laughed and told his men that the battle was won. When the Qin king heard of it, he immediately went to the nearby provinces, bestowed one noble rank on all of the citizenry there, ordered every single man over the age of 15 to go and assist the Qin cause, and formed an army as strong as 650,000 men.
With Zhao Kuo now in control of the largest force that Zhao had ever mustered, numbering at about 450,000 men, or most of the male population of the state of Zhao, he decided to attack the Qin forts since he was confident of his strength in numbers. The Battle of Changping is ranked among the most lethal military operations in history and the largest battles in history since the combined troops numbered at 1.1 million. The battle reflects a model of total war between states, which countries use all of their human and economic resources into warfare.
Many scholars believe that Zhao Kuo, though inexperienced, was a talented general and had the potential to become one of the best if he had enough time to develop his practical skills. However, the first battle that he encountered was against one of the most talented generals in Chinese history, Bai Qi, who was undefeated in the battlefield and renowned for his tactical skills in cavalry and accurate assessment of timing to attack. Under the stress from the King of Zhao to win the war through pitched battle, Zhao Kuo had no choice but to strike over open ground because of the shortage of supplies since most of the young males of Zhao had been fighting in Changping for over two years. In addition, many of his elite troops were mounted archers and light cavalry who were inept at defending.
Zhao Kuo decided to break the stalemate by attacking first. Initially, the offensive went well; many Qin forts fell, and for a moment it seemed as if the Qin army would admit defeat. Seeing the retreat of the enemy, Zhao Kuo became haughty and complacent without knowing that the King of Qin had replaced the former general with Bai Qi.
Unknown to the Zhao troops, Bai Qi had purposely feigned retreat to encircle and annihilate the entire Zhao force. Bai Qi had decided that to defeat the large Zhao army, the best method would be to trap them and slowly starve them to death.
With the Zhao army under the command of the overaggressive Zhao Kuo, who had almost no experience in leading an army as strong as almost half a million, Bai Qi's timing was perfect. Now with the enemy deep inside Bai Qi's trap, Bai Qi sent his elite cavalry brigades to attack the rear of Zhao army and occupied the lightly-defended Zhao fortresses back in Changping. Simultaneously, he also sent his troops to pincer attack the Zhao army from both flanks. Furthermore, Bai Qi demanded for his cavalry to strike through the gap between Zhao Kuo's aggressive cavalry and huge infantry divisions and divide his army in half. Zhao Kuo was trapped, with most of his force in a tiny pocket, and was forced to entrench his army and wait for aid.
With its food and water supplies cut off by the Qin army, Zhao Kuo's force slowly began to thirst and starve. The situation only deteriorated when the army could not find water even after it dug as deep as a few zhang. Zhao Kuo led numerous counterstrikes, only to be repelled by the Qin army, which was famous for its invincible archers and crossbowmen and their "rain of bolts and arrows."
Without any reinforcement from the state of Zhao and running out of water and food after it had held out for 40 days, a desperate Zhao Kuo finally ordered his army to attempt to breakout. Heavily outnumbered and exhausted, the Zhao soldiers were cut down like crops by the Qin troops. Zhao Kuo himself was killed during the breakout by the Qin archers and crossbowmen. The rest of his troops surrendered after Zhao Kuo's death, and the 450,000 strong army was annihilated.
Based on Records of the Grand Historian , after the defeat of Zhao Kuo's army, Bai Qi ordered the execution of some 400,000 Zhao soldiers, presumably by burying them alive. However, the number is believed by many scholars as inaccurate since that would account for roughly 89% of the total Zhao army after it had fought heavy skirmishes for more than 40 days.
This article concerns the period 279 BC – 270 BC.
This article concerns the period 269 BC – 260 BC.
Year 260 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Asina and Duilius. The denomination 260 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.
The Warring States period was an era in ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, bureaucratic and military reform, and political consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded with the wars of conquest that saw the state of Qin annex all the other contender states by 221 BC and found the Qin dynasty, the first imperial dynasty in Chinese history.
The Battle of Changping (長平之戰) was a military campaign during the Warring States period of ancient China, which took place from 262 BC to 260 BC at Changping, between the two strongest military powers, the State of Qin and the State of Zhao. After a bitter two-year stalemate, the battle ended in a decisive victory for Qin forces and the ruthless execution of most of the Zhao captives, resulting in an unrecoverable loss of manpower and strategic reserve for the Zhao state.
Zhao was one of the seven major states during the Warring States period of ancient China. It emerged from the tripartite division of Jin, along with Han and Wei, in the 5th century BC. Zhao gained considerable strength from the military reforms initiated during the reign of King Wuling, but suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Qin at the Battle of Changping. Its territory included areas in the modern provinces of Inner Mongolia, Hebei, Shanxi and Shaanxi. It bordered the states of Qin, Wei, and Yan, as well as various nomadic peoples including the Hu and Xiongnu. Its capital was Handan, in modern Hebei province.
Bai Qi, also known as Gongsun Qi (公孫起), was a Chinese military general of the Qin state during the Warring States period. Born in Mei, Bai Qi served as the commander of the Qin army for more than 30 years, being responsible for the deaths of over one million, earning him the nickname Ren Tu. According to the Shiji, he seized more than 73 cities from the other six hostile states, and to date no record has been found to show that he suffered a single defeat throughout his military career. He is regarded by Chinese folklore as one of the four Greatest Generals of the Late Warring States period, along with Li Mu, Wang Jian, and Lian Po; he is also remembered as the most fearsome amongst the four.
Lian Po, was a prominent General of the Zhao state in the Warring States period of Chinese history. He is regarded by Chinese modern folklore as one of the Four Greatest Generals of the Late Warring States period, along with Bai Qi, Wang Jian and Li Mu. Since his early years as a general, he won multiple battles, which earn him fame and a successful military career in his home state.
Lin Xiangru was a politician and general of the Warring States period, who served the state of Zhao. He figures prominently in two stories of the period, namely the episode and the namesake chengyu of "Returning the Jade to Zhao", as well as the story and the namesake chengyu of "Carrying Thorned Grass and Pleading Guilt".
Zhao She was a Chinese bureaucrat and general for the State of Zhao during the Warring States period.
Wang Jian was a distinguished Chinese military General from the State of Qin during the Warring States period. Under his command, the Qin army conquered the states of Zhao, Yan, and Chu. He is regarded by Chinese modern folklore as one of the four Greatest Generals of the Late Warring States period, along with Bai Qi, Lian Po and Li Mu.
King Zhaoxiang of Qin, or King Zhao of Qin (秦昭王), born Ying Ji (Chinese: 嬴稷, was the king of Qin from 306 BC to 251 BC. He was the son of King Huiwen and younger brother of King Wu.
Li Mu, personal name Zuo (繓), courtesy name Mu (牧), was a Chinese military General of the State of Zhao during the Warring States period. He is regarded by Chinese folklore as one of the four Greatest Generals of the Late Warring States period, along with Bai Qi, Wang Jian, and Lian Po. He is widely considered as one of the best defensive tacticians commanders of ancient warfare.
Qin's wars of unification were a series of military campaigns launched in the late 3rd century BC by the state of Qin against the other six powers remaining in China — Han, Zhao, Yan, Wei, Chu and Qi. Between 247 and 221 BC, Qin had developed into one of the most powerful of China's Seven Warring States that coalesced in the wake of the Zhou dynasty's decline, by now retaining a weak and merely ceremonial position among the warring states. In 230 BC, King Ying Zheng of Qin began the sequence of campaigns that would bring the Warring States period to a close, setting out to conquer each remaining sovereign one by one. This was completed in 221 BC with the fall of Qi, leaving the former Zhou sphere unified under a more centralized Qin control. Ying Zheng declared himself the First Emperor, or Qin Shi Huang—becoming the first sovereign over a unified China under the imperial Qin dynasty,.
King Huanhui of Han, ancestral name Jì (姬), clan name Hán (韩), personal name unknown, was the ruler of the State of Han between 272 BC and until his death in 239 BC. He was the son of King Xi of Han. During his reign, Han Fei submitted numerous proposals to enact Legalism. In 246 BC, King Huanhui sent Zheng Guo west to Qin to construct a canal with the intention of wasting Qin's resources. The canal came to be known as Zhengguo Canal.
Changping of the War, also known as The Battle of Changping, is a Chinese television series based on the events surrounding the Battle of Changping, fought between the states of Qin and Zhao during the Warring States period. The series was produced in 2004 but has yet to be aired on television stations in China.
Tian Jian,Houzhu of Tian Qi was the last king of Qi, one of the seven major states of the Warring States period of ancient China. His personal name was Tian Jian (田建), ancestral name Gui, and he did not have a posthumous title because he was the last king of Qi however he was known as Houzhu of Qi because he was the last ruler of Qi.
King Xiaocheng of Zhao was a king of the State of Zhao during the Warring States period of ancient China. His reign saw the decline of Zhao military power owing to the catastrophic defeat by the State of Qin at the Battle of Changping.
The Qin Empire III is a 2017 Chinese television series based on Sun Haohui's novel of the same Chinese title, which romanticizes the events in China during the Warring States period primarily from the perspective of the Qin state under King Zhaoxiang. It was first aired on CCTV-1 in mainland China in 2017. It was preceded by The Qin Empire (2009) and The Qin Empire II: Alliance (2012) and followed by The Qin Empire IV (2019), which were also based on Sun Haohui's novels.
The military of the Warring States refers primarily to the military apparatuses of the Seven Warring States which fought from around 475 BC to 221 BC when the state of Qin conquered the other six states, forming China's first imperial dynasty, the Qin dynasty.
