Antisemitism on social media

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In the early 21st century, antisemitism was identified in social media platforms with up to 69 percent of Jews in the US having encountered antisemitism online according to the 2022 report released by "The State of Antisemitism in America". [1] Jews have encountered antisemitism either as targets themselves or by being exposed to antisemitic content on their media page. [2] [3]

Contents

Online antisemitic incidents manifest in various forms such as emojis, GIFs, memes, comments, and reactions to content. Studies categorizes antisemitic discourse into different types: hate speech, calls for violence, dehumanization, conspiracy theories and Holocaust denial. [4]

General

Quint Czymmek, a German social scientist, cited In his paper a 2019 study that found that young European Jews (ages 16–34) are more prone to encountering antisemitic harassment or violence compared to their older counterparts. Additionally, these younger individuals identified the internet and social media as the primary domains where antisemitism poses the most significant challenge in the present day. [5]

Researcher Sophie Schmalenberger revealed that expressions of antisemitism go beyond explicit, offensive language and images on social media. They also manifest in subtle, coded forms that can easily go unnoticed. According to Schmalenberger an example of this is observed on Facebook, where the German far-right party, Alternative für Deutschland (AfD), has deliberately avoided referencing the Holocaust in its posts about the Second World War. Furthermore, the party employed antisemitic language and rhetoric, subtly normalizing antisemitism. [4]

According to research, algorithms have played a significant role in amplifying antisemitism, as they are designed to prioritize content based on user engagement. This means that posts with higher engagement, including likes, dislikes, shares, and comments (including counter comments), are more prominently displayed to users. The issue arises because user reactions to posts also trigger rewarding dopamine responses. Consequently, the algorithmic emphasis on outrageous content, which tends to generate the most engagement, incentivizes users to contribute more hateful content. Two studies, provided exclusively to USA Today, found that Facebook, Instagram, and X (formerly Twitter) users to tropes and conspiracies. The 2023 result, researchers say, is provoking dangerous ideas as antisemitic incidents surge to historic levels. [6]

Concerns have arisen among critics regarding the prevalence of antisemitism on social media, posing a significant issue for both the Jewish community and wider public discourse. While traditional methods of recording hate crimes, such as police crime records and the Crime Survey of England and Wales, have shown improvement, critics have said there remains a substantial underreporting of both online and offline antisemitic incidents. This discrepancy gives rise to a notable "dark figure" in the overall assessment of the problem. [1]

Some examples of antisemitism reported on social media include: “Jews are rats", “All Jews are greedy" and “I'm glad the holocaust happened". [7] [8]

A study conducted by the Ruderman Family Foundation and the Network Contagion Research Institute, released in July 2023, revealed Israel as the most attacked country on social media. X (formerly Twitter) users mentioned Israel in connection with human rights violations 12 times more than China, 38 times more than Russia, 55 times more than Iran, and 111 times more than North Korea. Notably, during the Israeli-Hamas conflict in Gaza in May 2021, the use of anti-Israel tropes surged. This escalation was accompanied by the release of a February 2022 Amnesty International report labeling Israel as an apartheid state. [9]

The researchers also observed an increase in anti-Semitic comments on Twitter, which correlated with real-world Jewish-targeted hate crime incidents. The highest point coincided with conspiracy theories related to COVID-19 and the 2021 assault on the Capitol in Washington by supporters of Donald Trump. [10]

Michael Bossetta, a researcher at Sweden's Lund University, points out that antisemitic content represents a tiny fraction of the traffic on social media. In his chapter in the book, he says most studies find that antisemitic content total in less than 1% of the total number of posts worldwide (as of year 2022). In one major survey, it was 0.00015%. [5]

Platforms

[11]

TikTok

TikTok, according to researchers and ratings, is very popular with-in tweens and teenagers, in addition to being widely used for news purposes, political platforms and following significant personages. Due to its widespread platform, "TikTok has become a magnet and a hotbed for violent and extremist content," the Israeli researchers Gabriel Weimann and Natalie Masri write in their chapter. [5]

A study conducted between February 2020 to May 2021 by Weimann and Masri found a 41% increase in antisemitic posts, a 912% increase in antisemitic comments and a 1,375% increase in antisemitic usernames. For example, a song about Jewish people being killed in Auschwitz was accessed more than six million times worldwide. [12] [5] [13] [14]

According to the CCDH, TikTok, in particular, is falling in banning accounts that directly targets Jewish users. The study reveals that the platform only removes 5 percent of accounts engaged in activities such as sending direct messages promoting Holocaust denial. [15]

TikTok has been called ‘the biggest antisemtic movement since the Nazis" by Sasha Baron Cohen. In 2023 Jewish American celebrities signed a letter to TikTok stating TikTok was not safe for Jewish users. [16]

Instagram

According to a 2021 report, [17] there are "millions" of results for hashtags relating to antisemitic conspiracy theories on Instagram.

A report by the CST released in 2021 investigated antisemitism on Instagram. Following 27 trending antisemitic Hashtags for example #gasjews, #israhell, #zionistagenda etc. which indicated a significant use of antisemitic hashtags on the platform. [18] [19] [20] [21]

X (formerly Twitter)

ADL examined the year between 2017 and 2018, determining that roughly 4.2 million anti-Semitic tweets were posted and reposted on X (formerly Twitter) during the examined year. The percentage of tweets pulled in by a query which tested positive for anti-Semitism ranged from a low 8.9% in week 33 (August 13–19) to a high of 34.2% in week 18 (April 30– May 6). [22]

Josephine Ballon, the head of legal at HateAid, said that to pursue a free speech platform we must ensure that X (formerly Twitter) is a safe space for users and free of fear of being attacked or receiving death threats or holocaust denial. [23]

According to an article published in march 2023, antisemitism on X (formerly Twitter) remains "higher than ever" with some worried about the platform descending into a "hellscape" filled with toxic, inflammatory content and misinformation. [24]

X (formerly Twitter) suspended the account of Kanye West after he tweeting an image of the Star of David with a swastika inside. The rapper's account had been suspended before for antisemitic tweets. [25]

YouTube

According to findings from the Institute for Strategic Dialogue, there was a 4963% increase in antisemitic comments on YouTube videos related to the conflict in the days following 2023 Hamas' attack against Israel. YouTube recorded a total of 15,720 hateful comments against Jewish people in the week following the attack by Hamas, as revealed by the Institute for Strategic Dialogue. [26]

According to the report, the attacks include comments featured dehumanizing language, drawing inappropriate comparisons between Israelis and Nazis. They also propagated conspiracy theories, ranging from the unfounded notion that Jewish individuals control the media, political structures, and financial institutions to the claim that the Hamas attack was a 'false flag' orchestrated by Israel. Additionally, explicit threats were made against Jewish figures and officials, accompanied by the sharing and dissemination of graphic images, as well as calls for violence targeting Jewish officials. [26]

Facebook

With 3.05 billion users Facebook (December 2023) is one of the largest social media platforms. As of 2016, 11% of available online antisemitic discourse (41,000 posts) is conducted on Facebook. The majority of these posts involve symbols or photos. Four percent of the discourse (1,500 posts) are calls to violence against Jews. [27]

Two possible explanations for the relatively low scope of anti-Semitic discourse in relation to the network's popularity: either the surfers chose not to publicly upload offensive content on Facebook or the network puts a great deal of effort into removing such content. [27]

Unlike X (formerly Twitter), hashtags such as #killthejews or #Holohoax don't exist on Facebook. Problematic usernames also were not found. Discourse glorifying Hitler, however, was found, including groups such as Hitler Memes or pages of far-right organizations such as the Alt-Right. Almost all of the users who uploaded anti-Semitic content on Facebook did so using fabricated usernames, which is prohibited by Facebook's terms of service. [27]

In a 2021 report, researchers collected 714 antisemitic posts between May and June which included Holocaust denial, and conspiracy theories with false claims about Jews "controlling" governments and banks, or orchestrating world events. The report concluded that Facebook acted on only 14 out of 129 posts reported to it (10.9%). The report stated that Facebook groups from which it sourced many of its sample posts, with titles such as "Exposing the new world order" and "Exposing Zionism", were still active. Facebook reacted to the allegations noting that they have increased their actions against hate speech 15 percent more since 2017. [27]

According to sources, Facebook have increased its removal antisemitic content and its rate of removals are higher than other social media. According to a 2023 report, Facebook has removed 35% of all antisemitic content in 2022 reported to the platform by the FOA in comparison to 23% content removed in 2021. [28]

Telegram

A report from Hope Not Hate, highlighted the prevalence of anti-Semitism within Telegram which has emerged as a primary refuge for individuals expelled from other social networks due to their extremist views. In 2021 Critics argued that Telegram's lax moderation policies have allowed numerous channels dedicated to anti-Semitic conspiracies and overtly violent content to thrive. One such channel, "Dismantling the Cabal," promoting the New World Order conspiracy theory since February 2021, has amassed over 90,000 followers. Another channel, managed by an anti-Semitic QAnon supporter known as GhostEzra, has a following of 333,000. [29]

In addition to these concerning findings, Hope Not Hate discovered that a minimum of 120 Telegram groups and channels have shared the racist and anti-Semitic manifesto authored by the perpetrator of the Christchurch mosque attacks in New Zealand in March 2019, resulting in the deaths of 51 individuals. Despite this dissemination of harmful content, Telegram has taken no action against such materials according to Hope Not Hate. [29]

Aftermath

In extensive interviews conducted by Czymmek, three young German Jewish adults disclosed that experiencing an antisemitic social media post left them with a profound sense of "loss of control," "unawareness of what would happen next," and despair over "the silence of other users." One of the study's participants decided to keep his Jewish identity on social media anonymous. "This anonymity protects me very much, it keeps the hate at bay." [5]

In the online space, CEO of CCDH Imran Ahmed said, there are no limits, and people become radicalized without any boundaries. "The online spaces then have an effect on offline spaces because these people have worsened," Ahmed said. "The failure of these companies is a cost that's paid in lives." [30]

Antisemitism following the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel

A report by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem reinforces the significant increase in antisemitism since the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel. The content posted on social media, according to the report, includes admiration of Hitler and the Holocaust, advocating violence against Jewish individuals, and the promotion of genocidal[ neutrality is disputed ] slogans like "from the river to the sea." This upswing in online antisemitic content not only fuels the dissemination of hatred but also reinforces the worldwide normalization and legitimization of antisemitism. [31]

Online antisemitism has surged in 2023, according to the Center for Tech and Society at the ADL, following the October 7 attack. The report states that Antisemitic posts increased dramatically on X (formally Twitter) beginning October 7, In contrast, antisemitism on Facebook remained relatively stable. It is likely that these differences were in part the result of content moderation. [32]

According to recent findings from the Institute for Strategic Dialogue, there was a 4963% increase in antisemitic comments on YouTube videos related to the conflict in the days following 2023 Hamas' attack. [26]

Related Research Articles

Antisemitism is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. This sentiment is a form of racism, and a person who harbours it is called an antisemite. Primarily, antisemitic tendencies may be motivated by negative sentiment towards Jews as a people or by negative sentiment towards Jews with regard to Judaism. In the former case, usually presented as racial antisemitism, a person's hostility is driven by the belief that Jews constitute a distinct race with inherent traits or characteristics that are repulsive or inferior to the preferred traits or characteristics within that person's society. In the latter case, known as religious antisemitism, a person's hostility is driven by their religion's perception of Jews and Judaism, typically encompassing doctrines of supersession that expect or demand Jews to turn away from Judaism and submit to the religion presenting itself as Judaism's successor faith—this is a common theme within the other Abrahamic religions. The development of racial and religious antisemitism has historically been encouraged by the concept of anti-Judaism, which is distinct from antisemitism itself.

The Community Security Trust (CST) is a British charity whose purpose is to provide safety, security, and advice to the Jewish community in the UK. It provides advice, training, representation and research.

The Center for Countering Digital Hate (CCDH), formerly Brixton Endeavors, is a British not-for-profit NGO company with offices in London and Washington, D.C. with the stated purpose of stopping the spread of online hate speech and disinformation. It campaigns to deplatform people that it believes promote hate or misinformation, and campaigns to restrict media organisations such as The Daily Wire from advertising. CCDH is a member of the Stop Hate For Profit coalition.

Antisemitic tropes or antisemitic canards are "sensational reports, misrepresentations, or fabrications" that are defamatory towards Judaism as a religion or defamatory towards Jews as an ethnic or religious group. Since as early as the 2nd century, libels or allegations of Jewish guilt and cruelty emerged as a recurring motif along with antisemitic conspiracy theories.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of antisemitism in the United States</span>

Different opinions exist among historians regarding the extent of antisemitism in American history and how American antisemitism contrasted with its European counterpart. In contrast to the horrors of European history, John Higham states that in the United States "no decisive event, no deep crisis, no powerful social movement, no great individual is associated primarily with, or significant chiefly because of anti-Semitism." Accordingly, David A. Gerber concludes that antisemitism "has been a distinctly minor feature of the nation's historical development." Historian Britt Tevis argue that, "Handlin and Higham’s ideas remain influential, and many American Jewish historians continue to present antisemitism as largely insignificant, momentary, primarily social."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antisemitism in the United States</span> Hatred towards the Jewish people within the US

Antisemitism has long existed in the United States. Most Jewish community relations agencies in the United States draw distinctions between antisemitism, which is measured in terms of attitudes and behaviors, and the security and status of American Jews, which are both measured by the occurrence of specific incidents.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jewish Internet Defense Force</span> Online activist group

The Jewish Internet Defense Force (JIDF) was an organization ran social media campaigns from 2000 to 2014 against websites and Facebook groups that it described as Islamic terrorism or antisemitism. The group's website, whose former domain now links to a gambling site, described the JIDF as a "private, independent, non-violent protest organization representing a collective of activists". The JIDF was termed "hacktivism" by the BBC and Haaretz. The JIDF web site was live in February 2014 with little activity, and is no longer available.

Antisemitic incidents escalated worldwide in frequency and intensity during the Gaza War, and were widely considered to be a wave of reprisal attacks in response to the conflict.

Antisemitism in contemporary Hungary principally takes the form of negative stereotypes relating to Jews, although historically it manifested itself more violently. Studies show antisemitism has become more prevalent since the fall of Communism, particularly among the younger generations. Surveys performed from 2009 and beyond have consistently found high levels of antisemitic feelings amongst the general population.

British Jews have experienced antisemitism - discrimination and persecution as Jews - since a Jewish community was first established in England in 1070. They experienced a series of massacres in the Medieval period, which culminated in their expulsion from England in 1290.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Israeli Students Combating Antisemitism</span>

Israeli Students combating antisemitism (ISCA) online has been founded in 2011 and operates with the purpose of fighting the growing antisemitism, xenophobia and Holocaust denial on the internet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">StopAntisemitism</span> American watchdog organization focused on antisemitism

StopAntisemitism is an American non-profit watchdog organization focused on combating antisemitism. A proponent of new antisemitism, it additionally targets groups and individuals critical of Israel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Goyim Defense League</span> American antisemitic hate group

The Goyim Defense League (GDL) is an American neo-Nazi, antisemitic hate group and conspiracy theory network of individuals who are active on social media websites and operate an online video platform called GoyimTV. The GDL also performs banner drops, papering neighborhoods with flyers, and other stunts to harass Jews. The GDL emerged in 2018 and is led by the antisemitic provocateur Jon Minadeo II. The GDL is currently tracked by the Southern Poverty Law Center as a hate group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Libs of TikTok</span> Far-right and anti-LGBT X (formerly Twitter) account

Libs of TikTok is a handle for various far-right and anti-LGBT social-media accounts operated by Chaya Raichik, a former real estate agent. Raichik uses the accounts to repost content created by left-wing and LGBT people on TikTok, and on other social-media platforms, often with hostile, mocking, or derogatory commentary. The accounts promote hate speech and transphobia, and spread false claims, especially relating to medical care of transgender children. The Twitter account, also known by the handle @LibsofTikTok, has nearly 3 million followers as of February 2024 and has become influential among American conservatives and the political right. Libs of TikTok's social-media accounts have received several temporary suspensions and a permanent suspension from TikTok.

Zionist antisemitism or antisemitic Zionism refers to a phenomenon in which antisemites express support for Zionism and the State of Israel. In some cases, this support may be promoted for explicitly antisemitic reasons. Historically, this type of antisemitism has been most notable among Christian Zionists, who may perpetrate religious antisemitism while being outspoken in their support for Jewish sovereignty in Israel due to their interpretation of Christian eschatology. Similarly, people who identify with the political far-right, particularly in Europe and the United States, may support the Zionist movement because they seek to expel Jews from their country and see Zionism as the least complicated method of achieving this goal and satisfying their racial antisemitism.

Antisemitism in the People's Republic of China is a mostly 21st century phenomenon and is complicated by the fact that there is little ground for antisemitism in China in historical sources. In the 2020s, antisemitic conspiracy theories in China began to spread and intensify. Some Chinese people believe in antisemitic tropes that Jews secretly rule the world and are business-minded.

Europa: The Last Battle is a 2017 English-language Swedish ten-part neo-Nazi propaganda film directed, written and produced by Tobias Bratt, a Swedish far-right activist associated with the Nordic Resistance Movement, a European neo-Nazi movement. It promotes antisemitic conspiracy theories, including Holocaust denial, and has been promoted across multiple social media platforms.

Misinformation in the Israel–Hamas war refers to the dissemination of false, misleading or unsubstantiated information during the Israel–Hamas war. Much of the content has been viral in nature, with tens of millions of posts in circulation on social media. A variety of sources, including government officials, media outlets, and social media influencers across different countries, have contributed to the spread of these inaccuracies.

Following the Hamas-led attack on Israel on 7 October 2023 and the outbreak of the Israel–Hamas war, there has been a surge of antisemitism around the world. Israeli Immigration Minister Ofir Sofer has stated that Israel is bracing to expect a large wave of Jews migrating to Israel due to the rising antisemitism around the world.

In The Washington Post in January 2024, journalist Elizabeth Dwoskin says that the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel was among the most well-documented terrorist attacks in history, including evidence from smartphone and GoPro cameras of attacking Hamas militants. Dwoskin states that conspiracy theories exist stating that the attacks did not occur at all, or that they were false-flags. Some Jewish leaders and researchers have compared denial of the Hamas-led attacks to Holocaust denialism.

References

  1. 1 2 Ozalp, Sefa; Williams, Matthew L.; Burnap, Pete; Liu, Han; Mostafa, Mohamed (2020). "Antisemitism on Twitter: Collective Efficacy and the Role of Community Organisations in Challenging Online Hate Speech". Social Media + Society. 6 (2): 205630512091685. doi:10.1177/2056305120916850. ISSN   2056-3051.
  2. ↑ "The State of Antisemitism in America 2022". www.ajc.org. 2023-02-12. Retrieved 2024-01-10.
  3. ↑ "Nearly 70% of U.S. Jews face antisemitism on social media – report". www.i24news.tv. 22 February 2023. Retrieved 2024-01-10.
  4. 1 2 "The algorithms behind the spread of online antisemitism". The Times of Israel .
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 "The Dark Side of Social Media: How it Fuels Antisemitism". www.brandeis.edu. Retrieved 2024-01-10.
  6. ↑ Carless, Will. "Number of Americans who believe antisemitic ideas has doubled since 2019, new survey finds". USA Today. Retrieved 2024-01-10.
  7. ↑ "You are being redirected..." www.adl.org. Retrieved 2024-01-10.
  8. ↑ "Protecting the Jewish community from antisemitism on Facebook" (PDF).
  9. ↑ II, Dylan (2023-07-12). "Israel is the most targeted country in the world on social media says new study". European Jewish Congress. Retrieved 2024-01-10.
  10. ↑ "Study reveals Israel was most attacked country on social media". www.i24news.tv. Retrieved 2024-01-10.
  11. ↑ John, Alex. "Social Media Service" . Retrieved 28 May 2021.
  12. ↑ Weimann, Gabriel; Masri, Natalie (December 2021). "TikTok's Spiral of Antisemitism". Journalism and Media. 2 (4): 697–708. doi: 10.3390/journalmedia2040041 . ISSN   2673-5172.
  13. ↑ "Celebs on TikTok: 'The biggest antisemitic movement since the Nazis'". euronews. 2023-11-20. Retrieved 2024-01-10.
  14. ↑ Weimann, Gabriel; Masri, Natalie (2022-01-01), "New Antisemitism on TikTok", Antisemitism on Social Media, Taylor and Francis, pp. 167–180, ISBN   978-1-032-05974-7 , retrieved 2024-01-10
  15. ↑ "TikTok is the biggest antisemitic movement since Nazis – Jewish celebs". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. 2023-11-17. Retrieved 2024-01-10.
  16. ↑ "Social media algorithms to blame for antisemitic, Islamophobic content online, Waterloo expert says".
  17. ↑ "Antisemitism 'rife' on social media platforms like Instagram and TikTok, research finds". Sky News. Retrieved 2024-01-10.
  18. ↑ "Instagram: Bad Influence" (PDF).
  19. ↑ Wagner, Kurt (2015-01-09). "Instagram Is the Fastest Growing Major Social Network". Vox. Retrieved 2024-01-11.
  20. ↑ "From Nazi propaganda to Holocaust denial, social media is pushing hate on users: study". USA Today. Retrieved 2024-01-10.
  21. ↑ Frenkel, Sheera; Myers, Steven Lee (15 November 2023). "Antisemitic and Anti-Muslim Hate Speech Surges Across the Internet". The New York Times.
  22. ↑ "Quantifying Hate: A Year of Anti-Semitism on Twitter" (PDF).
  23. ↑ Burke, Jason (2023-07-10). "Twitter faces legal challenge after failing to remove reported hate tweets". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 2024-01-10.
  24. ↑ "Antisemitism 'higher than ever' on Twitter, finds report". euronews. 2023-03-20. Retrieved 2024-01-10.
  25. ↑ Milmo, Dan (2022-12-02). "Kanye West suspended from Twitter after posting swastika inside Star of David". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 2024-01-10.
  26. 1 2 3 "Antisemitism rampant online since Hamas' attack, report finds". euronews. 2023-10-31. Retrieved 2024-01-10.
  27. 1 2 3 4 "Anti-Semitic social posts 'not taken down' in 80% of cases". 2021-08-02. Retrieved 2024-01-10.
  28. ↑ "Facebook removes more antisemitic content than other social media- FOA". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. 2023-01-22. Retrieved 2024-01-10.
  29. 1 2 Volpicelli, Gian M. "Telegram Is Becoming a Cesspool of Anti-Semitic Content". Wired. ISSN   1059-1028 . Retrieved 2024-01-10.
  30. ↑ "Antisemitic Posts Are Rarely Removed By Social Media Companies, A Study Finds". NPR .
  31. ↑ "Something went wrong..." en.huji.ac.il. Retrieved 2024-01-10.
  32. ↑ "You are being redirected..." www.adl.org. Retrieved 2024-01-10.
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