Climate change is a significant threat to Madagascar's environment and people. Climate change has raised temperatures, made the dry season longer and has resulted in more intense tropical storms. The country's unique ecosystems, animal and plant life are being impacted.
Climate change is projected to drive declines in coral reefs and forest habitats, and threaten native species such as lemurs. The human population is highly vulnerable due to severe impacts on water and agriculture, with implications for food security. Infectious diseases are also expected to increase. Madagascar is a signatory to the Paris Agreement and has set out goals for climate change adaptation, although their implementation faces challenges due to country's relative poverty.
Climate change is projected to lead to an increase in temperatures for the entire island of Madagascar in the 21st century. A 2008 estimate using a regional climate model put the increase at 1.1–2.6 °C, varying depending on topography, for the period 2046–2065. [1] [2] The south of Madagascar is projected to warm the most, with the north and coastal areas warming the least. This would have significant impacts for the fragmented eastern forests. [2] Madagascar has the highest risk of cyclones in Africa, experiencing three to four per year. [3] Cyclones are expected become more intense due to climate change but less frequent, greatly impacting the country and increasing flood risk. [3] By 2018, the number of violent cyclones with superior wind speeds up to 150 km/h doubled in the prior 25 years. [4] Madagascar's dry season is becoming longer. [4] Vegetation cover correlates strongly with the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, with this relationship indicating climate change is likely to further degrade Madagascar's environment. [5]
Madagascar's unique wildlife and flora are threatened by the changing climate. [6] [7] In a 2008 study, suitable climatic space for nearly all 80 endemic Malagasy plant species was impacted by climate change. [2] Madagascar's forests are projected to be greatly affected during the 21st century. [8] Lemurs are also likely to be impacted, with expected severe shifts in species distribution [9] [10] and by the spread of parasites across a wider distribution with warmer temperatures. [11] Lemur survivorship and fruit production declined in Ranomafana National Park between 1960–1985 and 1986–2005, along with winters becoming drier in the park, and Montane-endemic amphibians and reptiles are threatened by higher temperatures. [2] Suitable eastern rainforest habitat for ruffed lemurs is projected to decline considerably due to the interacting impacts of climate change and deforestation in Madagascar. [12] The fecundity and reproduction of the Milne-Edwards's sifaka is significantly impacted by changes in precipitation and increased cyclones. [6] Coral reefs in Madagascar are likely to decline in the 21st century due to climate change, although deforestation is thought to have a greater impact. [13] Coral bleaching events are projected to increase and cyclones damage them directly, leading to declines in fish populations and increasing coastal erosion. [3]
Agriculture in Madagascar is being affected by climate change, with smallholder farmers extremely vulnerable to its impacts. [14] The effects of climate change on agriculture, such as increased drought, greatly threatens Madagascar's population, 80% of which relies on agriculture for livelihood. [3] [15] Heating and flooding has been proposed as driving a decline in farm production between 1990 and 2015. [4] The severe 2021–2022 Madagascar famine, which followed the worst drought in four decades, has been linked to climate change by the United Nations and media commentators, although an attribution study found that "while climate change may have slightly increased the likelihood of this reduced rainfall [over 2019–21], the effect is not statistically significant", with poverty, poor infrastructure and high dependence on rain-fed agriculture being primary factors. [15] [16]
Water supply in Madagascar is poor, with a 2018 estimate suggesting that 66% of the population in rural areas and 49% in urban areas lack access to drinking water. [3] [17] Madagascar was facing one of the world's most severe water crises as of 2021 due to poor water management infrastructure, deforestation, erosion and saltwater intrusion. Decreases in annual rainfall, increased evapotranspiration and sea level rise are projected to further reduce water availability across much of the country. [3] This includes the capital Antananarivo, where water availability may not be able to meet demand by 2025. [3] Water in Southern Madagascar, where groundwater is the primary water source during the dry season, are likely to also be severely affected as water becomes further limited. [3]
Climate change also has significant implications for health in Madagascar. [3] The incidence of respiratory infections and diarrhea is increasing and these, along with malaria and malnutrition, are expected to increase in the 21st century due to climate change. [18] Cholera outbreaks and malnutrition have been linked to climate change. [4]
Madagascar is a signatory to the Paris Agreement. On average, each Malagasy emits less than 2 tonnes of greenhouse gas (GHG) a year, compared to the global average of over 6 tonnes. [19] Biomass is the primary source of energy, [20] and this use of firewood and charcoal for cooking is contributing to deforestation. [21] Only a fraction of the population have access to electricity, but some solar power has been built, such as Ambatolampy Solar Power Station. [22]
In its nationally determined contribution, with the help of reforestation, the country aims to absorb more GHG than it emits in 2030. [23] President Andry Rajoelina urged tougher international action on climate change at the 2021 United Nations General Assembly: [24]
Madagascar finds itself a victim of climate change. There are recurrent waves of drought in the south. The water sources dry up and all the means of subsistence become almost impossible. My compatriots in the south are bearing the weight of climate change which they did not participate in creating.
Madagascar is a poor country, [25] and climate change adaptation is costly. [3] [26] Protecting the country's unique ecosystems is considered a central adaptation strategy. [3] Proposed measures using conservation in Madagascar include expanding protected areas and generating income by selling carbon offsets for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+). [2] However, as of 2021 [update] a government strategy for REDD+ was unclear, as it banned the sale of all carbon credits and moved to nationalise carbon ownership. [27] In 2022, the country was considering selling 1.8 billion tonnes of carbon offsets under the World Bank's Forest Carbon Partnership Facility. [28] Mangrove restoration is another proposed strategy to adapt to sea level rise. [3] Building climate resilience in the population can be achieved through reducing poverty and improving water access and infrastructure, particularly in rural areas. [3] At COP26, environment minister Baomiavotse Vahinala Raharinirina called for $100bn in climate finance from rich countries to poorer countries like Madagascar to implement adaptation measures, highlighting a proposed water pipeline from the north to the south of the island requiring funding. [29]
Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal and destruction of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. About 31% of Earth's land surface is covered by forests at present. This is one-third less than the forest cover before the expansion of agriculture, with half of that loss occurring in the last century. Between 15 million to 18 million hectares of forest, an area the size of Bangladesh, are destroyed every year. On average 2,400 trees are cut down each minute. Estimates vary widely as to the extent of deforestation in the tropics. In 2019, nearly a third of the overall tree cover loss, or 3.8 million hectares, occurred within humid tropical primary forests. These are areas of mature rainforest that are especially important for biodiversity and carbon storage.
Reforestation is the practice of restoring previously existing forests and woodlands that have been destroyed or damaged. The prior forest destruction might have happened through deforestation, clearcutting or wildfires. Two important purposes of reforestation programs are for harvesting of wood or for climate change mitigation purposes. Reforestation can also help with ecosystem restoration. One method for reforestation is to establish tree plantations, also called plantation forests. They cover about 131 million ha worldwide, which is 3 percent of the global forest area and 45 percent of the total area of planted forests.
Habitat destruction occurs when a natural habitat is no longer able to support its native species. The organisms once living there have either moved to elsewhere or are dead, leading to a decrease in biodiversity and species numbers. Habitat destruction is in fact the leading cause of biodiversity loss and species extinction worldwide.
Climate change mitigation (or decarbonisation) is action to limit the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that cause climate change. Greenhouse gas emissions are primarily caused by people burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. Phasing out fossil fuel use can happen by conserving energy and replacing fossil fuels with clean energy sources such as wind, hydro, solar, and nuclear power. Secondary mitigation strategies include changes to land use and removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. Governments have pledged to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but actions to date are insufficient to avoid dangerous levels of climate change.
African environmental issues are caused by human impacts on the natural environment and affect humans and nearly all forms of life. Issues include deforestation, soil degradation, air pollution, water pollution, garbage pollution, climate change and water scarcity. These issues result in environmental conflict and are connected to broader social struggles for democracy and sovereignty.
Deforestation in Nigeria refers to the extensive and rapid clearing of forests within the borders of Nigeria. This environmental issue has significant impacts on both local and global scales.
The Amazon rainforest, spanning an area of 3,000,000 km2, is the world's largest rainforest. It encompasses the largest and most biodiverse tropical rainforest on the planet, representing over half of all rainforests. The Amazon region includes the territories of nine nations, with Brazil containing the majority (60%), followed by Peru (13%), Colombia (10%), and smaller portions in Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana.
Deforestation is a major threat to biodiversity and ecosystems in Costa Rica. The country has a rich biodiversity with some 12,000 species of plants, 1,239 species of butterflies, 838 species of birds, 440 species of reptiles and amphibians, and 232 species of mammals, which have been under threat from the effects of deforestation. Agricultural development, cattle ranching, and logging have caused major deforestation as more land is cleared for these activities. Despite government efforts to mitigate deforestation, it continues to cause harm to the environment of Costa Rica by impacting flooding, soil erosion, desertification, and loss of biodiversity.
The environmental impact of agriculture is the effect that different farming practices have on the ecosystems around them, and how those effects can be traced back to those practices. The environmental impact of agriculture varies widely based on practices employed by farmers and by the scale of practice. Farming communities that try to reduce environmental impacts through modifying their practices will adopt sustainable agriculture practices. The negative impact of agriculture is an old issue that remains a concern even as experts design innovative means to reduce destruction and enhance eco-efficiency. Though some pastoralism is environmentally positive, modern animal agriculture practices tend to be more environmentally destructive than agricultural practices focused on fruits, vegetables and other biomass. The emissions of ammonia from cattle waste continue to raise concerns over environmental pollution.
Deforestation in Madagascar is an ongoing environmental issue. Deforestation creates agricultural or pastoral land but can also result in desertification, water resource degradation, biodiversity erosion and habitat loss, and soil loss.
Climate change is a critical issue in Bangladesh as the country is one of the most vulnerable to the effects of climate change. In the 2020 edition of Germanwatch's Climate Risk Index, it ranked seventh in the list of countries most affected by climate calamities during the period 1999–2018. Bangladesh's vulnerability to the effects of climate change is due to a combination of geographical factors, such as its flat, low-lying, and delta-exposed topography, and socio-economic factors, including its high population density, levels of poverty, and dependence on agriculture. The impacts and potential threats include sea level rise, temperature rise, food crises, droughts, floods, and cyclones.
Climate change affects men and women differently. Climate change and gender examines how men and women access and use resources that are impacted by climate change and how they experience the resulting impacts. It examines how gender roles and cultural norms influence the ability of men and women to respond to climate change, and how women's and men's roles can be better integrated into climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies. It also considers how climate change intersects with other gender-related challenges, such as poverty, access to resources, and unequal power dynamics. Ultimately, the goal of this research is to ensure that climate change policies and initiatives are equitable, and that both women and men benefit from them. Climate change increases gender inequality, reduces women's ability to be financially independent, and has an overall negative impact on the social and political rights of women, especially in economies that are heavily based on agriculture. In many cases, gender inequality means that women are more vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change. This is due to gender roles, particularly in the developing world, which means that women are often dependent on the natural environment for subsistence and income. By further limiting women's already constrained access to physical, social, political, and fiscal resources, climate change often burdens women more than men and can magnify existing gender inequality.
Deforestation is a primary contributor to climate change, and climate change affects the health of forests. Land use change, especially in the form of deforestation, is the second largest source of carbon dioxide emissions from human activities, after the burning of fossil fuels. Greenhouse gases are emitted from deforestation during the burning of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon. Global models and national greenhouse gas inventories give similar results for deforestation emissions. As of 2019, deforestation is responsible for about 11% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon emissions from tropical deforestation are accelerating.
Climate Change and Indigenous Peoples describes how climate change disproportionately impacts Indigenous peoples around the world when compared to non-Indigenous peoples. These impacts are particularly felt in relation to health, environments, and communities. Some Indigenous scholars of climate change argue that these disproportionately felt impacts are linked to ongoing forms of colonialism. Indigenous peoples found throughout the world have strategies and traditional knowledge to adapt to climate change, through their understanding and preservation of their environment. These knowledge systems can be beneficial for their own community's adaptation to climate change as expressions of self-determination as well as to non-Indigenous communities.
Nature-based solutions is the sustainable management and use of natural features and processes to tackle socio-environmental issues. These issues include for example climate change, water security, food security, preservation of biodiversity, and disaster risk reduction. Through the use of NBS healthy, resilient, and diverse ecosystems can provide solutions for the benefit of both societies and overall biodiversity. The 2019 UN Climate Action Summit highlighted nature-based solutions as an effective method to combat climate change. For example, NBS in the context of climate action can include natural flood management, restoring natural coastal defences, providing local cooling, restoring natural fire regimes.
Climate changein the Caribbean poses major risks to the islands in the Caribbean. The main environmental changes expected to affect the Caribbean are a rise in sea level, stronger hurricanes, longer dry seasons and shorter wet seasons. As a result, climate change is expected to lead to changes in the economy, environment and population of the Caribbean. Temperature rise of 2 °C above preindustrial levels can increase the likelihood of extreme hurricane rainfall by four to five times in the Bahamas and three times in Cuba and Dominican Republic. Rise in sea level could impact coastal communities of the Caribbean if they are less than 3 metres (10 ft) above the sea. In Latin America and the Caribbean, it is expected that 29–32 million people may be affected by the sea level rise because they live below this threshold. The Bahamas is expected to be the most affected because at least 80% of the total land is below 10 meters elevation.
Climate change is posing an increasing threat to global socio-economic development and environmental sustainability. Developing countries with low adaptive capacity and high vulnerability to the phenomenon are disproportionately affected. Climate change in Kenya is increasingly impacting the lives of Kenya's citizens and the environment. Climate Change has led to more frequent extreme weather events like droughts which last longer than usual, irregular and unpredictable rainfall, flooding and increasing temperatures.
Due to its geographical and natural diversity, Indonesia is one of the countries most susceptible to the impacts of climate change. This is supported by the fact that Jakarta has been listed as the world's most vulnerable city, regarding climate change. It is also a major contributor as of the countries that has contributed most to greenhouse gas emissions due to its high rate of deforestation and reliance on coal power.
Climate change and cities are deeply connected. Cities are one of the greatest contributors and likely best opportunities for addressing climate change. Cities are also one of the most vulnerable parts of the human society to the effects of climate change, and likely one of the most important solutions for reducing the environmental impact of humans. The UN projects that 68% of the world population will live in urban areas by 2050. In the year 2016, 31 mega-cities reported having at least 10 million in their population, 8 of which surpassed 20 million people. However, secondary cities - small to medium size cities are rapidly increasing in number and are some of the fastest growing urbanizing areas in the world further contributing to climate change impacts. Cities have a significant influence on construction and transportation—two of the key contributors to global warming emissions. Moreover, because of processes that create climate conflict and climate refugees, city areas are expected to grow during the next several decades, stressing infrastructure and concentrating more impoverished peoples in cities.
This article documents events, research findings, scientific and technological advances, and human actions to measure, predict, mitigate, and adapt to the effects of global warming and climate change—during the year 2022.