Cycling is a popular mode of transport and leisure activity within London, the capital city of the United Kingdom. Following a national decline in the 1960s of levels of utility cycling, cycling as a mode of everyday transport within London began a slow regrowth in the 1970s. This continued until the beginning of the 21st century, when levels began to increase significantly—during the period from 2000 to 2012, the number of daily journeys made by bicycle in Greater London doubled to 580,000.[lower-alpha 1] The growth in cycling can partly be attributed to the launch in 2010 by Transport for London (TfL) of a cycle hire system throughout the city's centre. By 2013, the scheme was attracting a monthly ridership of approximately 500,000, peaking at a million rides in July of that year.[1] Health impact analyses have shown that London would benefit more from increased cycling and cycling infrastructure than other European cities.[2]
Cycling conditions in the city have in recent years been perceived as unsafe by cyclists.[3] A spate of cycling deaths in London occurred in November 2013, drawing criticism of TfL's cycle facilities and sparking protests and calls for safety improvements from politicians, cycling organisations and the media, as well as differing views on the extent to which poor cycling contributes to safety risks for both cyclists and other road users.
The popularity of cycling during the 19th century is in itself cyclical, consisting of several short periods of bicycle booms followed by a sharp decline in popularity.
Bicycles first made their way to London in 1818 via the carriage maker Denis Johnson, having imported and improved upon the original design by Karl von Drais, from which they acquired the name draisine, though its popularity among predominantly young male members of the aristocracy quickly gathered it the nickname 'dandy horse'. These designs lacked the pedals common to modern bicycles and were instead propelled by the action of the rider's feet on the ground. While briefly popular in the following years, slopes were challenging both to climb and descend, and riders were widely mocked in the streets and newspapers[4] while the London College of Surgeons condemned the practice of cycling as dangerous.[5]:38 Its popularity soon fell out of fashion. In the following years a number of designs were proposed, tested, and built, attempting to remedy the drawbacks of the design, including tricycles and quadricycles,[6]:48[5]:45–71 or the tandem bicycle.[7]:157 None gained widespread popularity.
It was not until the invention of the first 'true bicycles' in the 1860s, powered by the action of the rider's feet on two pedals driving a single wheel, did cycling gain significant popularity again.[5]:76 Originally called velocipedes, the lack of suspension, rough Victorian roads, and metal-rimmed tyres soon gathered them the nickname 'boneshakers'.[6]:??
A further development was to move the rider directly above the forward wheel, allowing the rider to fully extend their leg with each cycle and thus deliver the most power, resulting in the ordinary bicycle, more commonly known as the penny farthing. However this made the machine dangerously unstable - in the event of an upset, the rider would likely be thrown forward over the handlebars. Consequently, its popularity lay predominantly among young middle and upper-class men who were more accepting of the risks. Older men, and women of all ages, preferred safer designs such as the tricycle, but the high cost conferred by the additional mechanical complexity meant that such machines were rarely seen.[4] Among those who did ride, cycling developed as both a recreational and social activity, particularly among middle and upper class townsfolk taking advantage of their new machines to enjoy day trips through the nearby countryside. The village of Ripley, lying on the popular London to Winchester route, was declared "the Mecca of all good cyclists".[8] Other popular destinations included Thames Ditton[8] and Box Hill,.[9]
Some riders joined one of the many cycling clubs formed in this period. Club members would often ride together on shared excursions, often behind a recognised club Captain and his Lieutenants, with orders given by the club bugler[7]:160 or by whistle. Membership of such clubs could be exclusive, and the distinctive club uniforms conferred social opportunities even as a lone rider at the many rest stops.[4]
The first recognisably modern bicycle, with equal-sized wheels and pedals driving the rear wheel via a chain mechanism, was the Rover safety bicycle of 1885.[10] The invention of the pneumatic tyre in 1888 and the associated ride quality improvements only added to its popularity, triggering the third great bike boom which would last through the 1890s.[4] First Battersea Park and then Hyde Park were popular with new cyclists seeking a space to learn to ride.[6]:49
The introduction of the drop-frame bicycle in 1889, based on the design of the safety but without the crossbar between the rider's legs, allowed women to ride comfortably for the first time while wearing the long skirts typical of Victorian fashion.[11][12]:91 Cycling was one of the few activities a woman could take part in without a male chaperone,[6]:61 and while the bicycle changed how men took part in the same activities they had previously, for women the bicycle provided new opportunities and access to activities previously closed off to them,[13]:224 and from the image of women on bicycles enjoying their newfound freedom of movement outside the immediate proximity to the home emerged the image of the new woman.[14]:53 Several prominent feminist writers commented on the freedom the bicycle provided women and advocated others to take up riding. Susan Hamilton, Countess of Malmesbury, pronounced the sport "one of the greatest blessings given to modern women",[6]:61 and John Galsworthy would write the bicycle had "been responsible for more movement in manners and morals than anything since Charles the Second".[6]:71 Such changes did not come without significant pushback from more traditionalist factions. The female cyclist was seen as violating the separate spheres ideology prevalent at the time, and accused of attempting to become a man.[12] Opposition ranged from satirical caricatures in the newspapers, to poor service provided at inns and cafes, to verbal and in some cases physical abuse directed at riders,[15] including an instance of a meat hook thrown at a rider in Kilburn.[4] Particular attention was directed towards riders dressed in rational dress, who rejected the traditional long skirts and corsets typical of Victorian women's fashion in favour of bloomers and other more practical forms of clothing especially suited to cycling.[15] Despite the opposition, women continued to ride, with one in three bicycles ordered in 1895 placed by women.[4]
20th century
London's first segregated cycle track was introduced in 1934, between Hanger Lane and Greenford. Although the facility was well-used for cycling, segregation was opposed by cycling organisations at the time, fearing loss of rights to ride on the highway.[16]
Beginning in the 1960s, Britain experienced a decline in levels of utility cycling due to the increasing wealth of its populace and greater affordability of motor vehicles; this in turn led to the favouring of vehicular traffic over other options by transportation planners.[17] In 1977, the Conservative Party won the Greater London Council (GLC) election, and enacted policies that deprioritised spending on public transport.
In 1980 Ken Livingstone, at the time the Labour Party's transport spokesperson, made a promise to the London Cycling Campaign (LCC) that should Labour take control of the GLC they would spend more on the needs of cyclists.[18] In May 1981, Labour won the GLC election, with Livingstone becoming GLC leader shortly afterwards. The following month, Livingstone announced that the GLC would accede to the LCC's demands, creating a cycling planning unit and spending at least 1% of the yearly transport budget, £2m, on cycling.[18]
In 2000, Livingstone became the first elected Mayor of London, and in 2008 set a target of a 400% increase in cycling between 2008 and 2025. On 9 February 2008 Livingstone announced an estimated £400 million of initiatives to improve and increase cycling and walking, including thousands of new bike parking facilities at railway and tube stations. To be co-ordinated by the TfL and London boroughs, the aims include having one in ten Londoners making a round trip by bike each day and five per cent of all daily trips by bike by 2025.[19]
In 2011 around 2.5 per cent of all commutes to work in London were by bike,[20] though the figure was as high as 9% in Hackney.[21] This compared to other cities in the United Kingdom such as Cardiff (4.3 per cent), York (18 per cent)[22] and Cambridge (28 per cent of commutes)[23] and to cities in mainland Europe such as Berlin (13 per cent), Munich (15 per cent), and Amsterdam (37 per cent of all journeys).[24] The amount of growth has varied between regions within the city; on some routes such as Cheapside cyclists have been reported to comprise over half of rush-hour traffic.[25]
Plans to construct twelve "Cycle Superhighway" routes were announced by Livingstone in 2008, connecting inner and outer London, as well as providing cycle zones around urban centres.[26] Livingstone lost the subsequent mayoral election to ConservativeBoris Johnson in May 2008, and the new mayor promised to continue to support cycling.
In July 2010, two pilot routes were implemented with Cycle Superhighway 3 (CS3) connecting Barking in East London with Tower Hill on the eastern perimeter of The City of London and Cycle Superhighway 7 (CS7) linking Colliers Wood in South London to Bank in the city.[27][28] CS7 was criticised by rival cycling commentators and campaigners for relying on "blue paint" and bus lanes to protect cyclists from motor traffic, without using kerbed cycle tracks. CS3 was more popular, although critics argued that much of it had existed already, and had simply been rebranded as a Superhighway. Campaigners argued that the Mayor's rhetoric prior to launch had promised a much higher standard of cycling facility, yet the Superhighways encouraged cyclists on to busy main roads in conflict with buses and other motor traffic, with significant risk of being hit by left-turning vehicles at major junctions.
In July 2010, 6,000 bicycles became available for short-term rental from TfL under the Barclays Cycle Hire at 400 docking stations in nine central London boroughs. This was later expanded to 8,000 cycles from 570 stations, and is now branded Santander Cycles. The scheme, run by Montreal-based PBSC Urban Solutions, initially covered about 17 square miles (44 square kilometres).[29] The docking stations were spaced 300m (980ft) apart, and sited mainly at key destinations and tube stations. There is a charge for hire, although there was an initial period of free use to promote the scheme.[citation needed] The scheme was designed based on a feasibility study produced by German Dector-Vega and Charles Snead in November 2008.
Over the next few years, pressure from campaign groups, bloggers and everyday cyclists using social media and on-street demonstrations brought the state of London's roads for cycling to the attention of the media. Eventually, this led to significant new investment in safer cycle infrastructure for London.[30] In March 2013, City Hall announced £1 billion of improvements to make cycling safer and easier in London, as well as to improve air pollution and inner city congestion in the capital. Boris Johnson, Livingstone's replacement as Mayor of London, planned to build a 15-mile "Crossrail for bikes" running from the West London suburbs across the Westway, through Hyde Park, the Mall and along the Victoria Embankment past Canary Wharf and into East London.
In March 2013 "The Mayor's Vision for Cycling in London" was announced, a plan which includes a "Crossrail for bikes" running a fully segregated route from east to west across London to be in place by 2016. The statement also announced a Central London "bike grid" which would join up and improve existing cycle routes in Zone 1, as well as a network of "Quietways" in outer London, and E-bikes for rent in hilly areas of the city.[31] The London Cycle Hire Scheme has been described by the deputy mayor as "oozing" out over London with expansion in 2014 in Hackney, Notting Hill, Hammersmith, Fulham and Wandsworth.[32]
In December 2013, TfL published a draft map of a "Central London Grid" of new cycle routes.[33]
In February 2017 Kingston upon Thames London Borough Council agreed to set up a social prescribing trial as part of the Go Cycle campaign, in which GPs, physiotherapists and mental health professionals can refer patients for a free 12-week course with professional cycle coaches and qualified instructors.[34]
The Obike dockless hire scheme launched in London in July 2017 followed by introduction of the Lime and Uber e-bike schemes.
Facilities
An advanced stop line allows cyclists to get a head start on stationary traffic.
On-road cycle lanes vary. Some have raised concrete kerbs that separate people cycling from other traffic, whilst others are defined by lines painted on the road surface. The first Cycle Superhighways went into use in May 2010,[26] and the first Quietways in 2016.
A bike rack on a Thames Clipper commuter catamaran on the River Thames.
Folding bicycles may be carried on almost all public transport in London. Full-size bicycles may be carried on some sections of the transport network during certain hours of the day.[36]Bicycle parking facilities, generally cycle stands, but in some cases more secure facilities, are available at many stations.[37]
When bicycles may be carried on London's public transport network
Full-size bicycles
Folded bicycles
During morning (07:30-09:30) and evening (16:00-19:00) rush hours
A segment of guardrail in Camden marked as being due for removal in June 2014
Many roads in London are lined with guardrail, and cyclist deaths have occurred when motor vehicles crushed people against the rail as they cycled.[38] In 2007, TfL set a policy of the use of guardrail only in locations where it has been proven to be a requirement for safety, and began a programme of removing it where possible.[39] By 2010, 60 kilometres (37mi) of the 204 kilometres (127mi) of guardrail on the Transport for London Road Network had been removed.[40]
In 2008 Ken Livingstone announced that councils would be able to set borough-wide 20 miles per hour (32km/h) limits without a requirement for special enforcement measures.[25]Islington and Southwark subsequently[when?] imposed borough-wide 20 mph zones, with Camden announcing plans to introduce the same system in 2012.[41] The City of London imposed a borough-wide 20mph limit in July 2014.[42] Such zones are backed by cycling groups,[43] who support traffic speed restrictions for both encouraging walking and cycling, and making them safer.[44]
In January 2013 Boris Johnson appointed London's first Cycling Commissioner, tasked with making it a safer and more popular mode of transport in the capital,[45] and announced that segregated cycle facilities would be built across London as part of a package of measures designed to improve cyclist safety.[46]
In June 2013 TfL announced the creation of a "Safe Streets for London" plan. The plan aims to cut road deaths by 40% by 2020 via a range of measures, including redesigning "critical" major junctions and streets, installing more and upgrading existing traffic enforcement cameras, working with London boroughs to implement more 20mph speed limit zones, modifying heavy goods vehicles with safety equipment, and offering cycle training to every school pupil in London.[47]
Later the same year, it was claimed that half of cyclists still routinely ignored red stop lights at typical junctions in London, with the Licensed Taxi Drivers Association releasing two-hour-long rush hour videos that they said backed up drivers' daily experience that cyclists illegally using the pavement, running red lights or weaving in and out of vehicles, were not a small minority.[48] The London Cycling Campaign said that police figures indicated far more of cyclists' accidents were caused by poor driving than by ignoring red lights, although a survey indicated that more than half of cyclists admitted ignoring a red light at least once.[48]
The following year the London Cycling Campaign participated in a safety initiative with the Guide Dogs charity stressing that cyclists have a duty of care to be considerate to other road users, and pedestrians in particular, after the charity found that one in four blind and partially-sighted people in London had been hit by a cyclist, and seven in ten suffered a near miss, with cyclists commonly riding on pavements at speed or running red lights.[49]
Statistics
The number of daily bicycle journeys in London has increased by 314% since the 1990s, from 270,000 daily journeys in 1993 to 1,118,000 in 2022.[50] Jan-Aug 2023 has an average 1,172,000 daily journeys (5% increase on 2022 and 7% decrease on 2020),[50] 3 fatalities and 626 seriously injured.[51]
A study of deaths of cyclists in London published in 2010 in the research journal BMC Public Health stated that "the biggest threat [to cyclists] remains freight vehicles, involved in more than 4 out of 10 incidents, with over half turning left at the time of the crash."[57]
2013 deaths
Over 1,000 cyclists participated in a 2013 die-in protest outside TfL's headquarters after six cyclists died in a fortnight.The Space for Cycling campaign's Big Ride approaching the Houses of Parliament.
In November 2013, six cyclists were killed on London streets within a two-week period, bringing the number of cyclists killed in London in the year to 14, nine of which involved a heavy goods vehicle (HGV).[58] In response, the Metropolitan Police announced an initiative called Operation Safeway, in which 2,500 traffic police were stationed at major junctions throughout the city to issue fixed penalty notices to road users breaking road traffic laws and offer advice to vulnerable road users.[58] Following the deaths, Boris Johnson stated in an interview on BBC Radio that cyclists were endangering their lives when not following road traffic laws, making it "very difficult for the traffic engineers to second-guess [their actions]". The comments were immediately condemned as "deflecting blame onto cyclists [and] grossly insensitive" by Roger Geffen, campaigns and policy director of the Cyclists' Touring Club, and as "dodging responsibility" and "an insult to the dead and injured" by Darren Johnson, the Green Party member of the London Assembly.[59] Former Olympic cyclist Chris Boardman, policy director for British Cycling, the national governing body for cycle racing in Great Britain, called on Johnson to ban HGVs from some London roads during peak hours, saying that Johnson had made a verbal promise to him "to look at the successful experiences of Paris and many other cities in restricting the movements of heavy vehicles during peak hours". Johnson stated in a radio interview that he was unconvinced by the idea, but was however considering banning cyclists from wearing headphones while riding.[60] However, the traffic division of the Metropolitan Police were unable to identify any serious cycling incidents in which headphone use could be identified as a contributing factor.[61]
Two weeks after the sixth death, a protest campaign organised via social media held a die-in—modelled on the Dutch "Stop de Kindermoord" pro-cycling demonstrations of the 1970s—outside the headquarters of TfL, in which over 1,000 cyclists lay silently in the road and held a vigil for cyclists and pedestrians killed by road traffic.[62]
A BBC poll taken in December 2013 found that one fifth of regular cycle commuters had stopped cycling to work as a result of the recent spate of deaths. A fifth of the survey respondents had also been involved in a collision, and 68% believed that London's roads were not safe to cycle on.[3]
Regular events
London Freewheel 2008
RideLondon (formally Mayor of London's Sky Ride): an annual event launched as London Freewheel in September 2007, for which certain roads in central London are closed to motor vehicles for several hours on a Sunday. On 10 August 2012 it was announced that the 2013 Skyride would be re-branded as 'RideLondon', a two-day 'World-class festival of cycling'.[63] The event incorporates an 8-mile 'FreeCycle' event, 'Aimed at cyclists of all ages and abilities' on closed roads, as well as a 100-mile ride and a 'Grand Prix' event for professional cyclists.
The Tweed Run, an annual ride inaugurated in 2009 where the participants recreate the early years of British cycling by wearing tweed and other period clothing and by riding vintage bicycles.
Notes
1 2 Daily journey figures from Transport for London.[52][53]
↑ Fatality and serious injury figures from Transport for London.[54] Transport for London uses[55] the Department for Transport's definition of "seriously injured", which is one or more of the following: broken neck or back; severe head injury, unconscious; severe chest injury, any difficulty breathing; internal injuries; multiple severe injuries, unconscious; loss of arm or leg (or part); other chest injury, not bruising; deep penetrating wound; fracture; deep cuts/lacerations; other head injury; crushing; burns (excluding friction burns); concussion; severe general shock requiring hospital treatment; detention in hospital as an in-patient, either immediately or later; injuries to casualties who die 30 or more days after the accident from injuries sustained in that accident.[56]
Cycling, also known as bicycling or biking, is the activity of riding a bicycle or other type of cycle. It encompasses the use of human-powered vehicles such as balance bikes, unicycles, tricycles, and quadricycles. Cycling is practised around the world for purposes including transport, recreation, exercise, and competitive sport.
The mayor of London is the chief executive of the Greater London Authority. The role was created in 2000 after the Greater London devolution referendum in 1998, and was the first directly elected mayor in the United Kingdom.
Critical Mass is a form of direct action in which people travel as a group on bicycles at a set location and time. The idea is for people to group together to make it safe for each other to ride bicycles through their streets, based on the old adage: there's safety in numbers.
Vehicular cycling is the practice of riding bicycles on roads in a manner that is in accordance with the principles for driving in traffic, and in a way that places responsibility for safety on the individual.
Dooring is the act of opening a motor vehicle door into the path of another road user. Dooring can happen when a driver has parked or stopped to exit their vehicle, or when passengers egress from cars, taxis and rideshares into the path of a cyclist in an adjacent travel lane. The width of the door zone in which this can happen varies, depending upon the model of car one is passing. The zone can be almost zero for a vehicle with sliding or gull-wing doors or much larger for a truck. In many cities across the globe, doorings are among the most common and injurious bike-vehicle incidents. Any passing vehicle may also strike and damage a negligently opened or left open door, or injure or kill the exiting motorist or passenger.
Bicycle safety is the use of road traffic safety practices to reduce risk associated with cycling. Risk can be defined as the number of incidents occurring for a given amount of cycling. Some of this subject matter is hotly debated: for example, which types of cycling environment or cycling infrastructure is safest for cyclists. The merits of obeying the traffic laws and using bicycle lighting at night are less controversial. Wearing a bicycle helmet may reduce the chance of head injury in the event of a crash.
Cycling is the second-most common mode of transport in the Netherlands, with 36% of Dutch people listing the bicycle as their most frequent way of getting around on a typical day, as opposed to the car (45%) and public transport (11%). Cycling has a modal share of 27% of all trips nationwide. In cities this is even higher, such as Amsterdam which has 38%, and Zwolle 46%. This high frequency of bicycle travel is enabled by excellent cycling infrastructure such as cycle paths, cycle tracks, protected intersections, ample bicycle parking and by making cycling routes shorter and more direct than car routes.
Cycling in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia takes place for recreation, commuting and as a sport. Sydney has a hilly topography and so may require a slightly higher level of fitness from cyclists than flatter cities such as Melbourne and Canberra. Sydney depends heavily on motor vehicles where traffic and public transport operate at capacity. This means that cyclist are often competing with motorists for limited space on busier roads, and for limited government resources for expenditure on road infrastructure. In its favour, Sydney has a generally mild climate and there are active cycling groups.
Cycling in New York City is associated with mixed cycling conditions that include dense urban proximities, relatively flat terrain, congested roadways with stop-and-go traffic, and streets with heavy pedestrian activity. The city's large cycling population includes utility cyclists, such as delivery and messenger services; cycling clubs for recreational cyclists; and increasingly commuters. Cycling is increasingly popular in New York City; in 2018 there were approximately 510,000 daily bike trips, compared with 170,000 daily bike trips in 2005.
Toronto, Ontario, like many North American cities, has slowly been expanding its purpose-built cycling infrastructure. The number of cyclists in Toronto has been increasing progressively, particularly in the city's downtown core. As cycling conditions improve, a cycling culture has grown and alternatives such as automobiles are seen as less attractive. The politics of providing resources for cyclists, particularly dedicated bike lanes, has been contentious, particularly since the 2010s.
RideLondon is an annual festival of cycling held in London. Intended as an annual legacy of the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games, it was first held in 2013. The festival consists of a series of cycling events on closed roads around London and Essex.
Santander Cycles is a public bicycle hire scheme in London in the United Kingdom. The scheme's bicycles are popularly and colloquially known as Boris Bikes, after Boris Johnson who was Mayor of London when the scheme began operating.
Cycling in Australia is a common form of transport, recreation and sport. Many Australians enjoy cycling because it improves their health and reduces road congestion and air pollution. The government has encouraged more people to start, with several state advertising campaigns aimed at increasing safety for those who choose to ride. There is a common perception that riding is a dangerous activity. While it is safer to walk, cycling is a safer method of transport than driving. Cycling is less popular in Australia than in Europe, however cyclists make up one in forty road deaths and one in seven serious injuries.
Cycling infrastructure is all infrastructure cyclists are allowed to use. Bikeways include bike paths, bike lanes, cycle tracks, rail trails and, where permitted, sidewalks. Roads used by motorists are also cycling infrastructure, except where cyclists are barred such as many freeways/motorways. It includes amenities such as bike racks for parking, shelters, service centers and specialized traffic signs and signals. The more cycling infrastructure, the more people get about by bicycle.
Cycling for transport and leisure enjoys popularity in Greater Manchester and the city also plays a major role in British cycle racing. The Bee Network was launched in 2018. The University of Manchester is home to the Manchester Cycling Lab.
Cycleway 3 (C3) is a cycle route in London, England. It is part of the Cycleway network coordinated by TfL. It runs from Barking in the east to Lancaster Gate in central London. It is a popular route with both commuter and leisure cyclists, passing a number of major destinations in London along its route. For almost the entire route, cyclists are separated from other traffic in segregated cycle lanes, and cycling infrastructure has been provided at major interchanges. The cycleway, originally called Cycle Superhighway 3, was renamed to Cycleway 3 in January 2023.
Cycling in the United Kingdom has a long history, since the earliest days of the bicycle, and after a decline in the mid-20th century has been undergoing a resurgence in recent decades.
The London Freewheel, originally known for sponsorship reasons as the 'Hovis London Freewheel', was developed by the Mayor of London and Transport for London (TfL) to encourage and increase cycling participation, and promote cycling as a form of transport within London. The event was launched at City Hall on 26 June 2007 by the Mayor, Ken Livingstone, Konnie Huq and Tim Dewey, Marketing Director for the event's sponsor Hovis. Hovis contributed £300,000 out of the total £600,000 raised in commercial sponsorship and support.
A bicycle highway, also known as a cycling superhighway, fast cycle route or bike freeway, is an informal name for a bicycle path that is meant for long-distance traffic. There is no official definition of a bicycle highway. The characteristics of a cycle motorway mentioned by authorities and traffic experts include an absence of single-level intersections with motorized traffic, a better road surface and the absence of traffic lights. Bicycle highways are mentioned in connection with traffic jam. Owing to higher average speeds than normal cycling infrastructure, they provide an alternative to the car in commuter traffic. Often a cycle motorway follows the route of a railway or other linear infrastructure.
↑ Winkworth, Kylie (January 1989). "Women and the Bicycle: fast, loose and liberated". Australian Journal of Art. 8 (1): 101–102. doi:10.1080/03146464.1989.11432907.
↑ Bonnell, Marilyn (January 1990). "The power of the pedal: The bicycle and the turn-of-the-century woman 1". Nineteenth-Century Contexts. 14 (2): 215–239. doi:10.1080/08905499008583318.
Cycling for London (on YouTube; 24 minutes), a film produced by the Greater London Council in 1984 to show improvements made by their Cycling Unit to cycling facilities in London
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