Intertextuality

Last updated

Intertextuality is the shaping of a text's meaning by another text, either through deliberate compositional strategies such as quotation, allusion, calque, plagiarism, translation, pastiche or parody, [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] or by interconnections between similar or related works perceived by an audience or reader of the text. [6] These references are sometimes made deliberately and depend on a reader's prior knowledge and understanding of the referent, but the effect of intertextuality is not always intentional and is sometimes inadvertent. Often associated with strategies employed by writers working in imaginative registers (fiction, poetry, and drama and even non-written texts like performance art and digital media), [7] [8] intertextuality may now be understood as intrinsic to any text. [9]

Contents

Intertextuality has been differentiated into referential and typological categories. Referential intertextuality refers to the use of fragments in texts and the typological intertextuality refers to the use of pattern and structure in typical texts. [10] A distinction can also be made between iterability and presupposition. Iterability makes reference to the "repeatability" of certain text that is composed of "traces", pieces of other texts that help constitute its meaning. Presupposition makes a reference to assumptions a text makes about its readers and its context. [11] As philosopher William Irwin wrote, the term "has come to have almost as many meanings as users, from those faithful to Julia Kristeva's original vision to those who simply use it as a stylish way of talking about allusion and influence". [12]

History

James Joyce's 1922 novel Ulysses bears an intertextual relationship to Homer's Odyssey. UlyssesCover.jpg
James Joyce's 1922 novel Ulysses bears an intertextual relationship to Homer's Odyssey .

Julia Kristeva coined the term "intertextuality" (intertextualité) [13] in an attempt to synthesize Ferdinand de Saussure's semiotics: his study of how signs derive their meaning from the structure of a text (Bakhtin's dialogism); his theory which suggests a continual dialogue with other works of literature and other authors; and his examination of the multiple meanings, or "heteroglossia", of texts (especially novels) or individual words. [12] According to Kristeva, [14] "the notion of intertextuality replaces the notion of intersubjectivity" when we realize that meaning is not transferred directly from writer to reader but is instead mediated or filtered by "codes" imparted to the writer and reader by other texts. For example, when we read James Joyce's Ulysses we decode it as a modernist literary experiment or as a response to the epic tradition, or as part of some other conversation, or as part of many conversations at once. This intertextual view of literature, as shown by Roland Barthes, supports the concept that the meaning of a text does not reside in the text, but is produced by the reader in relation both to the text in question and the complex network of texts evoked by the reading process.

While the theoretical concept of intertextuality is associated with post-modernism, the device itself is not new. New Testament passages quote from the Old Testament and Old Testament books such as Deuteronomy or the prophets refer to the events described in Exodus (for discussions on using 'intertextuality' to describe the use of the Old Testament in the New Testament, see Porter 1997; Oropeza 2013; Oropeza & Moyise, 2016). Whereas a redaction critic would use such intertextuality to argue for a particular order and process of the authorship of the books in question, literary criticism takes a synchronic view that deals with the texts in their final form, as an interconnected body of literature. This interconnected body extends to later poems and paintings that refer to Biblical narratives, just as other texts build networks around Greek and Roman Classical history and mythology. Bullfinch's 1855 work The Age Of Fable served as an introduction to such an intertextual network;[ citation needed ] according to its author, it was intended "for the reader of English literature, of either sex, who wishes to comprehend the allusions so frequently made by public speakers, lecturers, essayists, and poets...".

Sometimes intertextuality is taken as plagiarism as in the case of Spanish writer Lucía Etxebarria whose poem collection Estación de infierno (2001) was found to contain metaphors and verses from Antonio Colinas. Etxebarria claimed that she admired him and applied intertextuality.[ citation needed ]

Post-structuralism

More recent post-structuralist theory, such as that formulated in Daniela Caselli's Beckett's Dantes: Intertextuality in the Fiction and Criticism (MUP 2005), re-examines "intertextuality" as a production within texts, rather than as a series of relationships between different texts. Some postmodern theorists [15] like to talk about the relationship between "intertextuality" and "hypertextuality" (not to be confused with hypertext, another semiotic term coined by Gérard Genette); intertextuality makes each text a "living hell of hell on earth" [16] and part of a larger mosaic of texts, just as each hypertext can be a web of links and part of the whole World-Wide Web. The World-Wide Web has been theorized as a unique realm of reciprocal intertextuality, in which no particular text can claim centrality, yet the Web text eventually produces an image of a community—the group of people who write and read the text using specific discursive strategies. [17]

One can also make distinctions between the notions of "intertext", "hypertext" and "supertext".[ citation needed ] Take for example the Dictionary of the Khazars by Milorad Pavić. As an intertext, it employs quotations from the scriptures of the Abrahamic religions. As a hypertext, it consists of links to different articles within itself and also every individual trajectory of reading it. As a supertext, it combines male and female versions of itself, as well as three mini-dictionaries in each of the versions.

Examples in literature

Some examples of intertextuality in literature include:

Linguist Norman Fairclough states that "intertextuality is a matter of recontextualization". [20] According to Per Linell, recontextualization can be defined as the "dynamic transfer-and-transformation of something from one discourse/text-in-context ... to another". [21] Recontextualization can be relatively explicit—for example, when one text directly quotes another—or relatively implicit—as when the "same" generic meaning is rearticulated across different texts. [22] : 132–133 

A number of scholars have observed that recontextualization can have important ideological and political consequences. For instance, Adam Hodges has studied how White House officials recontextualized and altered a military general's comments for political purposes, highlighting favorable aspects of the general's utterances while downplaying the damaging aspects. [23] Rhetorical scholar Jeanne Fahnestock has found that when popular magazines recontextualize scientific research they enhance the uniqueness of the scientific findings and confer greater certainty on the reported facts. [24] Similarly, John Oddo stated that American reporters covering Colin Powell's 2003 U.N. speech transformed Powell's discourse as they recontextualized it, bestowing Powell's allegations with greater certainty and warrantability and even adding new evidence to support Powell's claims. [22]

Oddo has also argued that recontextualization has a future-oriented counterpoint, which he dubs "precontextualization". [25] According to Oddo, precontextualization is a form of anticipatory intertextuality wherein "a text introduces and predicts elements of a symbolic event that is yet to unfold". [22] : 78  For example, Oddo contends, American journalists anticipated and previewed Colin Powell's U.N. address, drawing his future discourse into the normative present.

Allusion

While intertextuality is a complex and multileveled literary term, it is often confused with the more casual term 'allusion'. Allusion is a passing or casual reference; an incidental mention of something, either directly or by implication. [26] This means it is most closely linked to both obligatory and accidental intertextuality, as the 'allusion' made relies on the listener or viewer knowing about the original source. It is also seen as accidental, however, as the allusion is normally a phrase so frequently or casually used that the true significance is not fully appreciated. Allusion is most often used in conversation, dialogue or metaphor. For example, "I was surprised his nose was not growing like Pinocchio's." This makes a reference to The Adventures of Pinocchio , written by Carlo Collodi when the little wooden puppet lies. [27] If this was obligatory intertextuality in a text, multiple references to this (or other novels of the same theme) would be used throughout the hypertext.

Plagiarism

Intertextuality in art: "Nur eine Waffe taugt" (Richard Wagner, Parsifal, act III), by Arnaldo dell'Ira, ca. 1930 Arnaldo Dell'Ira (1903-1943), Parsifal Act 3, Picture composition.jpg
Intertextuality in art: "Nur eine Waffe taugt" (Richard Wagner, Parsifal, act III), by Arnaldo dell'Ira, ca. 1930

Sociologist Perry Share describes intertextuality as "an area of considerable ethical complexity". [28] Intertextuality does not necessarily involve citations or referencing punctuation (such as quotation marks) and can be mistaken for plagiarism. [29] : 86  While the two concepts are related, the intentions behind using another's work is critical in distinguishing the two. When making use of intertextuality, usually a small excerpt of a hypotext assists in the understanding of the new hypertext's original themes, characters, or contexts. [29] [ page needed ] Aspects of existing texts are reused, often resulting in new meaning when placed in a different context. [30] Intertextuality hinges on the creation of new ideas, while plagiarism attempts to pass off existing work as one's own.

Students learning to write often rely on imitation or emulation and have not yet learned how to reformulate sources and cite them according to expected standards, and thus engage in forms of "patchwriting," which may be inappropriately penalized as intentional plagiarism. [31] Because the interests of writing studies differ from the interests of literary theory, the concept has been elaborated differently with an emphasis on writers using intertextuality to position their statement in relation to other statements and prior knowledge. [32] Students often find it difficult to learn how to combine referencing and relying on others' words with marking their novel perspective and contribution. [33]

Non-literary uses

In addition, the concept of intertextuality has been used analytically outside the sphere of literature and art. For example, Devitt (1991) examined how the various genres of letters composed by tax accountants refer to the tax codes in genre-specific ways. [34] In another example, Christensen (2016) [35] introduces the concept of intertextuality to the analysis of work practice at a hospital. The study shows that the ensemble of documents used and produced at a hospital department can be said to form a corpus of written texts. On the basis of the corpus, or subsections thereof, the actors in cooperative work create intertext between relevant (complementary) texts in a particular situation, for a particular purpose. The intertext of a particular situation can be constituted by several kinds of intertextuality, including the complementary type, the intratextual type and the mediated type. In this manner the concept of intertext has had an impact beyond literature and art studies.

In scientific and other scholarly writing intertextuality is core to the collaborative nature of knowledge building and thus citation practices are important to the social organization of fields, the codification of knowledge, and the reward system for professional contribution. [36] Scientists can be skillfully intentional in the use of references to prior work in order to position the contribution of their work. [37] [38] Modern practices of scientific citation, however, have only developed since the late eighteenth century [39] and vary across fields, in part influenced by disciplines’ epistemologies. [40]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypertext</span> Text with references (links) to other text that the reader can immediately access

Hypertext is text displayed on a computer display or other electronic devices with references (hyperlinks) to other text that the reader can immediately access. Hypertext documents are interconnected by hyperlinks, which are typically activated by a mouse click, keypress set, or screen touch. Apart from text, the term "hypertext" is also sometimes used to describe tables, images, and other presentational content formats with integrated hyperlinks. Hypertext is one of the key underlying concepts of the World Wide Web, where Web pages are often written in the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). As implemented on the Web, hypertext enables the easy-to-use publication of information over the Internet.

Post-structuralism is a philosophical movement that questions the objectivity or stability of the various interpretive structures that are posited by structuralism and considers them to be constituted by broader systems of power. Although post-structuralists all present different critiques of structuralism, common themes among them include the rejection of the self-sufficiency of structuralism, as well as an interrogation of the binary oppositions that constitute its structures. Accordingly, post-structuralism discards the idea of interpreting media within pre-established, socially constructed structures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Literary theory</span> Systematic study of the nature of literature

Literary theory is the systematic study of the nature of literature and of the methods for literary analysis. Since the 19th century, literary scholarship includes literary theory and considerations of intellectual history, moral philosophy, social philosophy, and interdisciplinary themes relevant to how people interpret meaning. In the humanities in modern academia, the latter style of literary scholarship is an offshoot of post-structuralism. Consequently, the word theory became an umbrella term for scholarly approaches to reading texts, some of which are informed by strands of semiotics, cultural studies, philosophy of language, and continental philosophy.

Allusion is a figure of speech, in which an object or circumstance from an unrelated context is referred to covertly or indirectly. It is left to the audience to make a direct connection. Where the connection is directly and explicitly stated by the author, it is instead usually termed a reference. In the arts, a literary allusion puts the alluded text in a new context under which it assumes new meanings and denotations. It is not possible to predetermine the nature of all the new meanings and inter-textual patterns that an allusion will generate. Literary allusion is closely related to parody and pastiche, which are also "text-linking" literary devices.

Narratology is the study of narrative and narrative structure and the ways that these affect human perception. It is an anglicisation of French narratologie, coined by Tzvetan Todorov. Its theoretical lineage is traceable to Aristotle (Poetics) but modern narratology is agreed to have begun with the Russian formalists, particularly Vladimir Propp, and Mikhail Bakhtin's theories of heteroglossia, dialogism, and the chronotope first presented in The Dialogic Imagination (1975).

Ergodic literature is a term coined by Espen J. Aarseth in his 1997 book Cybertext—Perspectives on Ergodic Literature to describe literature in which nontrivial effort is required for the reader to traverse the text. The term is derived from the Greek words ergon, meaning "work", and hodos, meaning "path". It is associated with the concept of cybertext and describes a cybertextual process that includes a semiotic sequence that the concepts of "reading" do not account for.

Digital poetry is a form of electronic literature, displaying a wide range of approaches to poetry, with a prominent and crucial use of computers. Digital poetry can be available in form of CD-ROM, DVD, as installations in art galleries, in certain cases also recorded as digital video or films, as digital holograms, on the World Wide Web or Internet, and as mobile phone apps.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genre studies</span> Branch of general critical theory

Genre studies is an academic subject which studies genre theory as a branch of general critical theory in several different fields, including art, literature, linguistics, rhetoric and composition studies.

In critical theory, abjection is the state of being cast off and separated from norms and rules, especially on the scale of society and morality. The term has been explored in post-structuralism as that which inherently disturbs conventional identity and cultural concepts. Julia Kristeva explored an influential and formative overview of the concept in her 1980 work Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection, where she describes subjective horror (abjection) as the feeling when an individual experiences or is confronted by the sheer experience of what Kristeva calls one's typically repressed "corporeal reality", or an intrusion of the Real in the Symbolic Order.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Academic writing</span> Writing resulting from academic work

Academic writing or scholarly writing refers primarily to nonfiction writing that is produced as part of academic work in accordance with the standards of a particular academic subject or discipline, including:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Michael Riffaterre</span> French literary critic and theorist

Michel Riffaterre, known as Michael Riffaterre, was an influential French literary critic and theorist. He pursued a generally structuralist approach. He is well known in particular for his book Semiotics of Poetry, and his conceptions of hypogram and syllepsis. Kvas observes three phases in Riffaterre's work: stylistic, semiotic, and the intertextual phase. The most important is his intertextual phase in which he develops his understanding of intertextuality. For Riffaterre, "intertextuality is not a felicitous surplus, the privilege of a good memory or a classical education. The term indeed refers to an operation of the reader's mind, but it is an obligatory one, necessary to any textual decoding. Intertextuality necessarily complements our experience of textuality. It is the perception that our reading of the text cannot be complete or satisfactory without going through the intertext, that the text does not". According to the literary theorist Kornelije Kvas, "the key concept of Riffaterre's theory – intertextuality – is actually a method of text interpretation through which structures or poetic signs are recognized in the text that make the text literary. Intertextuality is a hermeneutic means of discovering the meaning of the poem, which strictly regulates the ways of the reader's perception of poetic signs. As in the case of the semiotic phase of his understanding of poetry, Riffaterre's intertextual phase is more like a theory of the interpretation of poetry than a theory of poetry itself".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rhetoric of science</span>

Rhetoric of science is a body of scholarly literature exploring the notion that the practice of science is a rhetorical activity. It emerged after a number of similarly oriented topics of research and discussion during the late 20th century, including the sociology of scientific knowledge, history of science, and philosophy of science, but it is practiced most typically by rhetoricians in academic departments of English, speech, and communication.

Recontextualisation is a process that extracts text, signs or meaning from its original context (decontextualisation) and reuses it in another context. Since the meaning of texts, signs and content is dependent on its context, recontextualisation implies a change of meaning and redefinition. The linguist Per Linell defines recontextualisation as:

the dynamic transfer-and-transformation of something from one discourse/text-in-context ... to another.

Critical reading is a form of language analysis that does not take the given text at face value, but involves a deeper examination of the claims put forth as well as the supporting points and possible counterarguments. The ability to reinterpret and reconstruct for improved clarity and readability is also a component of critical reading. The identification of possible ambiguities and flaws in the author's reasoning, in addition to the ability to address them comprehensively, are essential to this process. Critical reading, much like academic writing, requires the linkage of evidential points to corresponding arguments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Charles Bazerman</span> American educator and scholar

Charles Bazerman is an American educator and scholar. He was born and raised in New York. He has contributed significantly to the establishment of writing as a research field, as evidenced by the collection of essays written by international scholars in Writing as A Human Activity: Implications and Applications of the Work of Charles Bazerman. Best known for his work on genre studies and the rhetoric of science, he is a Professor of Education at the University of California, Santa Barbara, where he also served as Chair of the Program in Education for eight years. He served as Chair of the Conference on College Composition and Communication, delivering the 2009 CCCC Chair's Address, "The Wonders of Writing," in San Francisco, California.

Assemblage refers to a text "built primarily and explicitly from existing texts to solve a writing or communication problem in a new context". The concept was first proposed by Johndan Johnson-Eilola and Stuart Selber in the journal Computers & Composition in 2007. The notion of assemblages builds on remix and remix practices, which blur distinctions between invented and borrowed work. This idea predates modernism, with the quote by Edgar Allan Poe, "There is no greater mistake than the supposition that a true originality is a mere matter of impulse or inspiration. To originate, is carefully, patiently, and understandingly to combine."

Transtextuality is defined as the "textual transcendence of the text". According to Gérard Genette transtextuality is "all that sets the text in relationship, whether obvious or concealed, with other texts" and it "covers all aspects of a particular text". Genette described transtextuality as a "more inclusive term" than intertextuality.

Hypertext, in semiotics, is a text which alludes to, derives from, or relates to an earlier work or hypotext.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intertextual production of the Gospel of Mark</span> Viewpoint about a book of the New Testament

The intertextual production of the Gospel of Mark is the viewpoint that there are identifiable textual relationships such that any allusion or quotation from another text forms an integral part of the Markan text, even when it seems to be out of context.

Brisio Javier Oropeza is an American biblical scholar and theologian who is best known for his studies in Pauline literature, intertextuality, apostasy and perseverance. He is professor of Biblical and Religious Studies at Azusa Pacific University and Seminary in Azusa, California.

References

  1. ↑ Gerard Genette (1997) Paratexts p.18
  2. ↑ Kaźmierczak, Marta (2019-12-15). "Intertextuality as Translation Problem: Explicitness, Recognisability and the Case of "Literatures of Smaller Nations"". Russian Journal of Linguistics. 23 (2): 362–382. doi: 10.22363/2312-9182-2019-23-2-362-382 . ISSN   2312-9212.
  3. ↑ Hallo, William W. (2010) The World's Oldest Literature: Studies in Sumerian Belles-Lettres p.608
  4. ↑ Cancogni, Annapaola (1985) The Mirage in the Mirror: Nabokov's Ada and Its French Pre-Texts pp.203-213
  5. ↑ Hebel, Udo J (1989). Intertextuality, Allusion, and Quotation: An International Bibliography of Critical Studies (Bibliographies and Indexes in World Literature). Greenwood Press. ISBN   978-0313265174.
  6. ↑ "Definition of Intertextuality", "Dictionary.com", Retrieved on 15 March 2018.
  7. ↑ Clayton, John B. (1991). Influence and Intertextuality in Literary History. Univ of Wisconsin Press. ISBN   9780299130343.
  8. ↑ Gadavanij, Savitri. "Intertextuality as Discourse Strategy", School of Language and Communication, Retrieved 15 March 2018.
  9. ↑ Roozen, Kevin (2015). "Texts Get Their Meaning from Other Texts". Naming What We Know: Threshold Concepts of Writing Studies. Logan: Utah State UP. pp. 44–47. ISBN   978-0-87421-989-0.
  10. ↑ Mayer, Rolf (1990). "Abstraction, Context, and Perspectivization – Evidentials in Discourse Semantics". Theoretical Linguistics. 16 (2–3). doi:10.1515/thli.1990.16.2-3.101. ISSN   0301-4428. S2CID   62219490.
  11. ↑ Porter, James E. (1986). "Intertextuality and the discourse community". Rhetoric Review. 5 (1): 34–47. doi:10.1080/07350198609359131. ISSN   0735-0198. S2CID   170955347.
  12. 1 2 Irwin,2, October 2004, pp. 227–242, 228.
  13. ↑ analysis of Jehan de Saintré, (in the collective volume Théorie d'ensemble, Paris, Seuil, 1968).
  14. ↑ Kristeva, Julia (1980). Desire in language : a semiotic approach to literature and art. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 66. ISBN   0231048068. OCLC   6016349.
  15. ↑ Gerard Genette, Palimpsests: literature in the second degree, Channa Newman and Claude Doubinsky (trans.), University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln NE and London.
  16. ↑ Kristeva, 66.
  17. ↑ Mitra, Ananda (1999). "Characteristics of the WWW Text: Tracing Discursive Strategies". Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. 5 (1): 1. doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.1999.tb00330.x.
  18. ↑ Lefkowitz, Mary; Romm, James (2016). The Greek Plays: Sixteen Plays by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. New York: Modern Library. p. 102. ISBN   9780812993004.
  19. ↑ intertextual.bible/text/matthew-2.20-exodus-4.19
  20. ↑ Fairclough, Norman. Analysing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research. New York: Routledge, 2003, p. 51.
  21. ↑ Linell, Per. "Discourse across boundaries: On recontextualizations and the blending of voices in professional discourse," Text, 18, 1998, p. 154.
  22. 1 2 3 Oddo, John. Intertextuality and the 24-Hour News Cycle: A Day in the Rhetorical Life of Colin Powell's U.N. Address. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 2014.
  23. ↑ Hodges, Adam. "The Politics of Recontextualization: Discursive Competition over Claims of Iranian Involvement in Iraq, " Discourse & Society, 19(4), 2008, 483-505.
  24. ↑ Fahnestock, Jeanne. "Accommodating Science: The Rhetorical life of Scientific Facts," Written Communication, 3(3), 1986, 275-296.
  25. ↑ Oddo, John. "Precontextualization and the Rhetoric of Futurity: Foretelling Colin Powell's U.N. Address on NBC News," Discourse & Communication, 7(1), 2013, 25-53.
  26. ↑ "the definition of plagiarism". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2018-03-19.
  27. ↑ "Allusion dictionary definition | allusion defined". www.yourdictionary.com. Retrieved 2018-03-19.
  28. ↑ Share, Perry (January 2005). "Managing intertextuality–meaning, plagiarism and power". ResearchGate.
  29. 1 2 Ivanić, Roz (1998). Writing and identity: The discoursal construction of identity in academic writing. Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins Publishing Co.
  30. ↑ Jabri, Muayyad (December 2003). "Change as shifting identities: a dialogic perspective" (PDF). Journal of Organizational Change Management. 17. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-03-20. Retrieved 2018-03-19.
  31. ↑ Howard, Rebecca Moore. (1995). Plagiarisms, authorships, and the academic death penalty. College English 57.7, 788-806.
  32. ↑ C. Bazerman (2004). Intertextualities: Volosinov, Bakhtin, literary theory, and literacy studies. In A. Ball & S. W. Freedman (Eds.), Bakhtinian perspectives on languages, literacy, and learning (pp. 53-65). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  33. ↑ Berkenkotter, C., Huckin, T., & Ackerman, J. (1991). Social Context and Socially Constructed Texts: The Initiation of a Graduate Student into a Writing Research Community. In Textual dynamics of the professions (pp. 191-215). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
  34. ↑ Devitt, A. (1991). Intertextuality in tax accounting. In Textual Dynamics of the Professions: Historical and Contemporary Studies of Writing in Professional Communities. Madison WI: University of Wisconsin Press. Pages 336-357.
  35. ↑ Christensen, L.R. (2016). On Intertext in Chemotherapy: an Ethnography of Text in Medical Practice. Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW): The Journal of Collaborative Computing and Work Practices. Volume 25, Issue 1, pp 1-38
  36. ↑ Merton, R. K. (1957). Priorities in scientific discovery. American Sociological Review, 22(6), 635-659.
  37. ↑ Swales, J. (1981). Aspects of article introductions. Language Studies Unit, University of Aston in Birmingham.
  38. ↑ Bazerman, C. (1993). Intertextual self-fashioning: Gould and Lewontin's representations of the literature. In R. Selzer (Ed.), Understanding scientific prose (pp. 20-41). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
  39. ↑ Bazerman, C. (1991). How natural philosophers can cooperate: The rhetorical technology of coordinated research in Joseph Priestley's History and Present State of Electricity. In C. Bazerman & J. Paradis (Eds.), Textual dynamics of the professions (pp. 13-44). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
  40. ↑ C. Bazerman (1987). Codifying the social scientific style: The APA Publication Manual as a behaviorist rhetoric. In J. Nelson, A. Megill, & D. McCloskey (Eds.). The rhetoric of the human sciences (pp. 125-144). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

Additional citations

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.