Koh-i-Sultan

Last updated

Koh-i-Sultan
Koh-e-Sultan, Kuh-i-Sultan, Kuh-e-Sultan
Pakistan relief location map.jpg
Red triangle with thick white border.svg
Koh-i-Sultan
Pakistan Balochistan relief map.svg
Red triangle with thick white border.svg
Koh-i-Sultan
Koh-i-Sultan (Balochistan, Pakistan)
Highest point
Elevation 2,334 m (7,657 ft)
Coordinates 29°7′20″N62°49′1″E / 29.12222°N 62.81694°E / 29.12222; 62.81694 Coordinates: 29°7′20″N62°49′1″E / 29.12222°N 62.81694°E / 29.12222; 62.81694
Naming
English translationMountain of the King
Geography
Location Balochistan, Pakistan
Geology
Age of rock Miocene-Late Pleistocene
Mountain type Stratovolcano
Volcanic arc Sultan/Makran/Baluchistan volcanic arc
Last eruption 90,000 ± 10,000 years ago
While most of Pakistan is located on the Indian Plate, Koh-i-Sultan is situated on the Eurasian Plate Earthquake Information for Pakistan.png
While most of Pakistan is located on the Indian Plate, Koh-i-Sultan is situated on the Eurasian Plate

Koh-i-Sultan is a volcano in Balochistan, Pakistan. It is part of the tectonic belt formed by the collision of the Eurasian Plate and Indian Plate: specifically, a segment influenced by the subduction of the Arabian plate beneath the Asian plate and forming a volcanic arc which includes the Bazman and Taftan volcanoes in Iran. The volcano consists of three main cones, with heavily eroded craters running west-northwest and surrounded by a number of subsidiary volcanic centres. Its summit is 2,334 metres (7,657 ft) high, and the crater associated with the Miri cone has a smaller crater inside.

Contents

The volcano is formed by andesite and dacite rocks, with fragmentary rocks prevailing over lava flows. The rocks have typical arc-volcano chemistry and composition, with a progression from andesite to dacite in the eruption products with younger age. Potassium-argon dating has indicated an age range from 5,900,000 to 90,000 years. Subsequent erosion has generated a large debris apron around the base of the volcano and carved rock formations which impressed early explorers; one well-known rock formation is Neza e Sultan.

Geothermal activity and the emission of volcanic gases are ongoing, and the volcano has been prospected for the possibility of obtaining geothermal energy. The geothermal activity has resulted in widespread rock alteration and the formation of sulfur deposits, which were mentioned in a 1909 report and later mined. Koh-i-Sultan also has deposits of other minerals.

Geography and geology

Political geography and human history

Koh-i-Sultan is in the Chagai District of the Quetta Division, [1] Baluchistan, Pakistan. [2] A nearby settlement is the Nokkundi railway station, 37 kilometres (23 mi) south. [3] [4] Henry Walter Bellew was the first to report the volcano's existence in 1862, [5] and the Geological Survey of British India conducted mining and reconnaissance operations from 1941 to 1944. [6] In 1961, a truck-accessible mining road was built from Nokkundi to the volcano's summit. [7] Its name, translated as "Mountain of the King", is a reference to a saint in the local Baluchi religion. [5]

Regional

The formation of the Koh-i-Sultan volcano is related to the subduction of the Arabian Plate under the Eurasian Plate ArabianPlate.png
The formation of the Koh-i-Sultan volcano is related to the subduction of the Arabian Plate under the Eurasian Plate

Pakistan is part of the active tectonic belt which is responsible for the formation of the Himalayas following the collision of the Eurasian and Indian plates. As a result of this activity, hydrothermal alteration and hydrothermal activity are expected to be widespread in Pakistan. [8] Koh-i-Sultan is the youngest volcano in Pakistan. [9]

It is tectonically influenced by the Arabian Plate subducting beneath the Eurasian Plate, forming the Chagai volcanic zone. Tectonic activity related to this subduction is ongoing. [2] Before the onset of volcanic activity at Koh-i-Sultan in the early Quaternary, tectonic uplift occurred in the region. [10] Koh-i-Sultan and the Iranian volcanoes Bazman and Taftan form the Sultan volcanic arc. [11] Also known as the Makran [12] or Baluchistan volcanic arc, it is c.500 kilometres (310 mi) long and stretches in an east-northeast direction. [13] Magma generated by the relatively shallow subduction of the Indian Plate rises to the surface and forms the andesitic rocks, among others, of Taftan and Koh-i-Sultan. [14] [15] The related Makran subduction zone is one of the few Cretaceous zones still active, and has formed a large accretionary prism. [16]

Local

Koh-i-Sultan is the central mountain in the Chagai Hills Helmandrivermap.png
Koh-i-Sultan is the central mountain in the Chagai Hills

Koh-i-Sultan is a volcanic complex [5] with at least three cones, [17] named Kansuri, Abu and Miri after their respective summits. [18] Each has a central crater [17] —the largest of which is over 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) wide [3] —which have been heavily affected by erosion. [19] The summit of Koh-i-Sultan is 2,334 metres (7,656 ft) high. [20] and the 2,333-metre (7,654 ft)-high Miri is considered the youngest cone. Its crater is nested; the outer crater has a diameter of 6.5 kilometres (4.0 mi) and the inner crater, formed by resurgent activity, has a diameter of 800 metres (2,600 ft). [18] Miri's summit, south of the crater, is surrounded by a zone of altered rock. [21] Subsidiary volcanic centres also exist in the form of volcanic plugs and satellite cones; [17] those around Miri are named Bag Koh, Batal Koh, Chhota Dalil, Dam Koh, Koh-e-Dalil, Koh-e-Malik and Mit Koh. [18] The volcanic pile covers an area of 500 to 770 square kilometres (190 to 300 sq mi), [9] [18] and the volcanic complex has an area of 27 by 16 kilometres (17 mi × 10 mi) running west-northwest. [19] Although Koh-i-Sultan is considered dormant or extinct, [22] ongoing fumarolic activity has been recorded. [23]

The volcano consists of agglomerates, flows and tuff. [24] Lava flows make up about 10 percent of the volcanic pile, and the remainder is volcaniclastic material. [18] Other layers alternate between ash, lava and pyroclastic flows. [25] [19] Andesitic-dacitic materials dominate, including block-and-ash flows, lahars and tuff. [26] Andesitic lava flows have thicknesses of 1–2 metres (3 ft 3 in – 6 ft 7 in); two at Miri are 3 metres (9.8 ft) and 100 metres (330 ft) thick. The dacites form lava domes and subsidiary centres. [18] Rock fragments are widely buried by long lava flows, [5] and an Eocene mélange makes up part of the volcano's basement. [27]

The rocks follow the calc-alkaline trend of magmatic differentiation, containing silicic lavas such as dacite. [28] Their overall composition ranges from basaltic andesite to dacite, [12] and the dominant lava rocks are andesite and basalt. [19] Andesites range from green to gray in colour, and dacites are pink- and light-gray. [18] The andesitic lavas contain phenocrysts of andesine, hornblende, plagioclase and hypersthene. Dacites have biotite, hornblende, plagioclase and quartz phenocrysts. Textures range from porphyritic to vitreophyritic. [18] [26] Andesites are more common in Pliocene rocks, and Pleistocene rocks tend to be dacitic. At least five cycles of andesite rock formation have been found on the southwest side of Koh-i-Sultan. [18] Its rocks are typical volcanic-arc rocks in elemental chemistry, [29] and may stem from mantle-derived magma. The satellite centre rocks differ from the main centre rocks in composition, suggesting that different processes generated the magmas which constructed the cones. [30] There is a compositional trend from Bazman over Taftan to Sultan, with the latter having more potassium in its rocks than the other centres. [31] Such compositional trends may come from different partial melting ratios and different fluid contributions to magma generation at each volcano. [32]

Potassium-argon (K-Ar) dating of the Miri summit has yielded an age of 200,000 years, and an older date (5,900,000 ± 2,800,000) has been obtained from the northwestern centre. [26] Between the two are andesite dates of 5,630,000 ± 90,000 years and 2,390,000 ± 50,000 years. [18] [29] Although the last activity occurred during the Pleistocene (probably a large eruption), volcanism began earlier. [25] The youngest date, obtained from K-Ar dating of pumice, is 90,000 ± 10,000 years. [18] Koh-i-Sultan's Pleistocene activity is probably related to the formation of travertine deposits, which are mined. [33]

Although the volcano has experienced relatively little dissection, [34] the western cone has been eroded to the base. [5] Post-volcanic erosion has created an apron of rock fragments at Koh-i-Sultan's base, [25] with radially incised valleys bearing traces of energetic stream erosion emanating from the volcanic cones. [35] [36] Koh-i-Sultan's remaining rock formations often have irregular shapes with a striking appearance; a 1909 report noted the presence of a monolith-shaped rock 91 metres (300 ft) and a dome-shaped rock formation, Koh-i-Kansuri. [37] Neza e Sultan ("Sultan's Spear") is a major spear-shaped rock formation, about 300 metres (1,000 ft) high with a basal diameter of 91 metres (300 ft). [38] Weathering has created longitudinal fissures in the rock. [39] Similar pillars are found elsewhere on the volcano, [38] reminding early explorers of Gothic architecture and minarets. Neza e Sultan (possibly named after the mythical Sultan-i-Pir-Khaisar, who is reportedly buried nearby), [40] at the westernmost crater, [39] was discovered by Europeans in 1877. [39] The rock formations may be necks of old volcanic centres. [41] Gravel, pebbles and sand form playas and dunes, also found in dry valleys. [17]

Previous volcanic activity in the area includes the Cretaceous Sinjrani volcanics, resembling those of Koh-i-Sultan, [24] and activity which produced the Chagai monzonites. [1] The Sinjrani volcanics, about 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) thick, consist primarily of lava. Other rocks are agglomerates, limestone and tuff, [42] and the Cretaceous rocks are mainly andesitic. [43] The monzonitic Chagai intrusions are accompanied by other intrusions with additional minerals. [44] Other formations are the mostly sedimentary Humai formation of the late Cretaceous and the probably Paleocene Jazzak formation. [17] [42] The Chagai topography is dominated by a sand-covered plain, rising to an altitude of 750–900 metres (2,460–2,950 ft). [35] Wind-eroded rocks and dry lake beds are also present. [10] Other tectonic objects are the Ras Koh range, the Mirjawa range [42] and the Chagai Hills east of Koh-i-Sultan. [45] The Sinjrani and Chagai volcanics crop out primarily west of Koh-i-Sultan, [3] and are part of the older Chagai volcanic arc. [11] Some geologists consider Koh-i-Sultan part of the Chagai arc. [46] Two nearby volcanic centres are Damodin and Koh-i-Dalel, [45] and Koh i-Kannesin is northeast of Koh-i-Sultan. [27] The crust beneath the volcano reaches a thickness of about 60 kilometres (37 mi). [32]

Environment

There is little precipitation in Chagai, [25] about 160 millimetres per year (6.3 in/year). [35] Koh-i-Sultan drains into two salt pans, [43] and is responsible for a rain shadow effect on the Sistan Basin farther north. [27] The environment around the volcano is arid, with little vegetation; according to an 1895–1896 report, however, asafoetida was collected nearby. [20] There is a large difference in temperature between summer and winter. [35]

Geothermal field

Hot springs exist around Koh-i-Sultan, with the Talu spring the best known. [25] Other springs (Batal Kaur, Miri Kaur and Padagi Kaur) are in riverbeds near the Miri crater. [35] Temperatures of 25–36 °C (77–97 °F) have been measured in water samples, [2] but the three springs have temperatures lower than the ambient temperature: 25.6–34.8 °C (78.1–94.6 °F). [35] The hydrothermal activity suggests a magma chamber beneath the volcano. Water is probably stored in fractures within the Sinjrani volcanics, [25] and is heated by a reservoir with a temperature of 200–300 °C (392–572 °F) or 112–207 °C (234–405 °F). [47] [48] At least one spring is associated with a fault. [49] Isotope data and composition indicate that the hot-spring water is precipitation-related; its composition is modified by interaction with hot rocks, [50] with the water following a path beginning northeast of Miri crater. [51] Country-rock salts, probably dissolved by sulfuric acid, are found in the waters. [52] The springs' sulfur is of magmatic origin. [53] Hydrothermal activity has modified the rocks around Koh-i-Sultan, with Miri Kaur featuring silicified rocks and the area southwest of Miri featuring acidic alteration. [35] Some springs in the area have a very low pH. [52] The region is the least developed in Pakistan, [8] and Koh-i-Sultan may be a usable source of geothermal energy; [54] however, the lack of rainfall may make it hydrologically unsuitable for energy generation. [49]

Emanations of hydrogen sulfide have been reported around the volcano, [55] preventing the mining of underground sulfur deposits, [56] and the gas is also present in the hot springs. The confirmed presence of sulfur dioxide would indicate hot magma beneath the volcano. [25]

Mining and mineral deposits

Sulfur, a common mineral associated with volcanic activity, is the most important mineral found at Koh-i-Sultan Sulfur-IMG 3733 1.JPG
Sulfur, a common mineral associated with volcanic activity, is the most important mineral found at Koh-i-Sultan

A number of minerals are found at Koh-i-Sultan; sulfur is the most important. [20] Reserves were estimated in 1976 at 85,000 tonnes (84,000 long tons; 94,000 short tons) of sulfur ore, [57] 47,000 tonnes (46,000 long tons; 52,000 short tons) of which were high-grade and 38,000 tonnes (37,000 long tons; 42,000 short tons) low-grade ore. [56] Sulfur is found on Sultan's southern flank, where it originated from solfatara activity. According to a 1975 report, about 20 tonnes per day (0.23 long ton/ks) of 50-percent-sulfur ore were mined; [58] the report indicated that between 1941 and 1944, 66,700 tonnes (65,600 long tons; 73,500 short tons) of ore were produced. [59] The recovery of sulfur, asafoetida and dyes at Koh-i-Sultan was claimed in a 1909 report. [37] [38]

The sulfur deposits, south of Koh-i-Sultan's crater, are named Batar, Miri, Nawar and Zond and are within a 18-square-kilometre (7 sq mi) area. In the deposits, the sulfur is in the form of lenses within the volcanic rock. The Koh-i-Sultan deposits are the principal native source of sulfur in Pakistan. [56] They were probably formed by the interaction of sulfuric acid and hydrogen sulfide or from sulfur-containing hot springs when the volcano was still active. [60] Another theory suggests that they formed during the Holocene. [61] Other mineral deposits found at Koh-i-Sultan are copper-containing alterations with alunite and quartz; [62] alunogen, which can be used to obtain aluminium; [63] limonite, used as a yellow dye, and a red ochre rock containing gypsum and anthophyllite. [64] Copper deposits which also contain gold are part of an epithermal-sulfidic mineralization. [65]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mount Mazama</span> Complex volcano in the Cascade Range

Mount Mazama is a complex volcano in the state of Oregon, United States, in a segment of the Cascade Volcanic Arc and Cascade Range. Most of the mountain collapsed following a major eruption approximately 7,700 years ago. The volcano is in Klamath County, in the southern Cascades, 60 miles (97 km) north of the Oregon–California border. Its collapse, due to the eruption of magma emptying the underlying magma chamber, formed a caldera that holds Crater Lake. The mountain is in Crater Lake National Park. Mount Mazama originally had an elevation of 12,000 feet (3,700 m), but following its climactic eruption this was reduced to 8,157 feet (2,486 m). Crater Lake is 1,943 feet (592 m) deep, the deepest freshwater body in the US and the second deepest in North America after Great Slave Lake in Canada.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Licancabur</span> Stratovolcano on the border between Bolivia and Chile

Licancabur is a stratovolcano on the border between Bolivia and Chile, south of the Sairecabur volcano and west of Juriques. Part of the Andean Central Volcanic Zone, it has a prominent, 5,916-metre (19,409 ft)-high cone. A 400-metre (1,300 ft) summit crater containing Licancabur Lake, a crater lake which is among the highest lakes in the world, caps the volcano. Three stages of lava flows emanate from the edifice.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bazman</span> Volcano mountain in Iran

Bazman is a dormant stratovolcano in a remote desert region of Sistan and Baluchestan Province in south-eastern Iran. A 500-m-wide crater caps the summit of the dominantly andesitic-dacitic volcano, the flanks of which are covered by monogenetic centres especially to the northwest. Bazman is a geologically young volcano which formed mainly in the Quaternary, with the oldest dated rocks being 11.7 million years old and the youngest 0.6 million years. Although no historic eruptions have been reported from Bazman, it does contain fumaroles. Thus Bazman may be regarded as dormant, rather than extinct. Its satellite cones have been the source of basaltic lava flows.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Taftan (volcano)</span> Volcano mountain in Iran

Taftan is an active stratovolcano in south-eastern Iran in the Sistan and Baluchestan province. With variable heights reported, all around 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) above sea level, it is the highest mountain in south-eastern Iran. The nearest city is Khash.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lascar (volcano)</span> A stratovolcano within the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes

Lascar is a stratovolcano in Chile within the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, a volcanic arc that spans Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. It is the most active volcano in the region, with records of eruptions going back to 1848. It is composed of two separate cones with several summit craters. The westernmost crater of the eastern cone is presently active. Volcanic activity is characterized by constant release of volcanic gas and occasional vulcanian eruptions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nevado de Longaví</span> Volcano in Chile

Nevado de Longaví is a volcano in the Andes of central Chile. The 3,242 m (10,636 ft) high volcano lies in the Linares Province, which is part of the Maule Region. It features a summit crater and several parasitic vents. The volcano is constructed principally from lava flows. Two collapses of the edifice have carved collapse scars into the volcano, one on the eastern slope known as Lomas Limpias and another on the southwestern slope known as Los Bueye. The volcano features a glacier and the Achibueno and Blanco rivers originate on the mountain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ollagüe</span> Stratovolcano in Bolivia and Chile

Ollagüe or Ullawi is a massive andesite stratovolcano in the Andes on the border between Bolivia and Chile, within the Antofagasta Region of Chile and the Potosi Department of Bolivia. Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, its highest summit is 5,868 metres (19,252 ft) above sea level and features a summit crater that opens to the south. The western rim of the summit crater is formed by a compound of lava domes, the youngest of which features a vigorous fumarole that is visible from afar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tacora</span> Stratovolcano in Parinacota Province, Chile

Tacora is a stratovolcano located in the Andes of the Arica y Parinacota Region of Chile. Near the border with Peru, it is one of the northernmost volcanoes of Chile. It is part of the Central Volcanic Zone in Chile, one of the four volcanic belts of the Andes. The Central Volcanic Zone has several of the highest volcanoes in the world. Tacora itself is a stratovolcano with a caldera and a crater. The youngest radiometric age is 50,000 years ago and it is heavily eroded by glacial activity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paniri</span> Mountain in Chile

Paniri is a stratovolcano located in El Loa Province, Antofagasta Region, Chile, and near the border with Bolivia. To its northwest lie the twin volcanoes San Pedro and San Pablo, and to its southeast lies Cerro del León, from which it is separated by the huge Chao lava dome.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volcán Putana</span> Mountain in Chile

Volcán Putana, sometimes referred to as Jorqencal or Machuca, is a stratovolcano located In the Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ) of the Andes on the border between Bolivia and Chile and close to the Sairecabur volcanic complex. Its summit is 5,884 metres (19,304 ft) above sea level and contains a summit crater with two smaller craters nested within it. Beneath the summit, the volcano features a number of lava domes and lava flows, some of which originated in flank vents.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cerro del Azufre</span> Mountain in Chile

Cerro del Azufre is a stratovolcano located in El Loa Province, Antofagasta Region, Chile. It is part of a chain of volcanoes that separate Upper Loa River basin from Salar de Ascotán basin and is flanked to the west by a dacitic lava dome called Chanka or Pabellón. The 6000 metre volcanoes San Pedro and San Pablo are located to the southwest of Cerro del Azufre.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Canadian Cascade Arc</span> Canadian segment of the North American Cascade Volcanic Arc

The Canadian Cascade Arc, also called the Canadian Cascades, is the Canadian segment of the North American Cascade Volcanic Arc. Located entirely within the Canadian province of British Columbia, it extends from the Cascade Mountains in the south to the Coast Mountains in the north. Specifically, the southern end of the Canadian Cascades begin at the Canada–United States border. However, the specific boundaries of the northern end are not precisely known and the geology in this part of the volcanic arc is poorly understood. It is widely accepted by geologists that the Canadian Cascade Arc extends through the Pacific Ranges of the Coast Mountains. However, others have expressed concern that the volcanic arc possibly extends further north into the Kitimat Ranges, another subdivision of the Coast Mountains, and even as far north as Haida Gwaii.

Irruputuncu is a volcano in the commune of Pica, Tamarugal Province, Tarapacá Region, Chile, as well as San Pedro de Quemes Municipality, Nor Lípez Province, Potosí Department, Bolivia. The mountain's summit is 5,163 m (16,939 ft) high and has two summit craters—the southernmost 200 m (660 ft)-wide one has active fumaroles. The volcano also features lava flows, block and ash flows and several lava domes. The volcano is part of the Andean Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ).

Shahsavaran is a volcanic field in Iran. It covers an ellipse shaped area west of Bazman volcano. The field has erupted lava cones and lava flows, along with some explosive volcanic activity especially in the eastern part of the field. Volcanic rocks in the field are dominated by andesite, with subordinate basalt, dacite and rhyodacite. The volcanism has lasted from 12 million years ago to recent times, the 2010 Hosseinabad earthquake took place within the field but seems to be unrelated to volcanic activity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lastarria</span> Stratovolcano on the border between Chile and Argentina

Lastarria is a 5,697 metres (18,691 ft) high stratovolcano that lies on the border between Chile and Argentina. It is remote and the surroundings are uninhabited but can be reached through an unpaved road. The volcano is part of the Central Volcanic Zone, one of the four segments of the volcanic arc of the Andes. Over a thousand volcanoes - of which about 50 are active - lie in this over 1,500 kilometres (930 mi) long chain of volcanoes, which is generatedby subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Olca-Paruma</span> Volcanic complex in Chile

Olca-Paruma is a volcanic complex in Chile. Lying on the border between Chile and Bolivia, it is formed by an east–west alignment of volcanoes. From west to east, these are Cerro Paruma, Volcan Paruma, Olca, and Mencheca or Michincha. Aside from the mines of Ujina, Rosario, and Quebrada Blanca, the area is sparsely populated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Apacheta-Aguilucho volcanic complex</span> Pair of volcanoes and lava domes in Chile

Apacheta-Aguilucho volcanic complex is a volcanic complex in Chile. It consists of two volcanoes Cerro Apacheta and Cerro Aguilucho, which are constructed mainly by lava flows and surrounded by outcrops of lava. A sector collapse and its landslide deposit are located on Apacheta's eastern flank. Two lava domes are associated with the volcanic complex, Chac-Inca and Pabellón.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ubinas</span> Volcano in southern Peru

Ubinas is an active stratovolcano in the Moquegua Region of southern Peru, approximately 60 kilometres (37 mi) east of the city of Arequipa. Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, it rises 5,672 metres (18,609 ft) above sea level. The volcano's summit is cut by a 1.4-kilometre-wide (0.87 mi) and 150-metre-deep (490 ft) caldera, which itself contains a smaller crater. Below the summit, Ubinas has the shape of an upwards-steepening cone with a prominent notch on the southern side. The gently sloping lower part of the volcano is also known as Ubinas I and the steeper upper part as Ubinas II; they represent different stages in the volcano's geological history.

Cerro Tuzgle[ˈse.ro ˈtus.ɡle] is a dormant stratovolcano in the Susques Department of Jujuy Province in northwestern Argentina. Tuzgle is a prominent volcano of the back-arc of the Andes and lies about 280 kilometres (170 mi) east of the main volcanic arc. Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, it is 5,486 metres (17,999 ft) high above sea level and grew during different stages over a caldera and lava domes. Some major lava flows emanate from the summit crater, and one confirmed and one possible flank collapse unit as well as an ignimbrite sheet are associated with this volcano.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tocorpuri</span> Volcano in Bolivia and Chile

Tocorpuri is a volcano in Chile, close to the border with Bolivia. Its peak height is most recently given as 5,808 metres (19,055 ft) and it features a 1.3 kilometres (0.81 mi) wide summit crater. The volcano consists mainly of lava flows and pyroclastic deposits and is subdivided into two separate edifices. Just west of Tocorpuri, the La Torta lava dome is a 200 metres (660 ft) high flat-topped structure. The volcanoes are formed by andesitic, dacitic and rhyolitic rocks.

References

  1. 1 2 Nagell 1975, p.1
  2. 1 2 3 Shuja, Tauqir Ahmed (January 1988). "Small geothermal resources in Pakistan". Geothermics. 17 (2–3): 463. doi:10.1016/0375-6505(88)90075-2.
  3. 1 2 3 Ahmad et al., p.8
  4. ↑ Geological Survey Professional Paper. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1978. p. A27.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Reclus, Elisée (1906). Les volcans de la terre (in French). Société belge d 'astronomie, de météorologie et de physique du globe. pp.  24–25. Retrieved 2 August 2016.
  6. ↑ Perello et al. 2008, p.1585
  7. ↑ Nagell 1976, p.7
  8. 1 2 Ahmad et al., p.4
  9. 1 2 Ahmad et al., p.10
  10. 1 2 John F. Shroder Jr. (26 September 2002). Himalaya to the Sea: Geology, Geomorphology and the Quaternary. Routledge. p. 26. ISBN   978-1-134-91977-2.
  11. 1 2 Ahmad et al., p.9
  12. 1 2 Saadat and Stern 2011, p.609
  13. ↑ Perello et al. 2008, p.1586
  14. ↑ Treloar, P. J.; Izatt, C. N. (1 January 1993). "Tectonics of the Himalayan collision between the Indian Plate and the Afghan Block: a synthesis". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 74 (1): 84. Bibcode:1993GSLSP..74...69T. doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1993.074.01.06. S2CID   128736087.
  15. ↑ Lawrence, R. D.; Yeats, R. S.; Khan, S. H.; Farah, A.; DeJong, K. A. (1 January 1981). "Thrust and strike slip fault interaction along the Chaman transform zone, Pakistan". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 9 (1): 365. Bibcode:1981GSLSP...9..363L. doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1981.009.01.33. S2CID   128679350.
  16. ↑ Siddiqui et al. 2009, p.1
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 Ahmad et al., p.7
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Siddiqui et al. 2009, p.5
  19. 1 2 3 4 Abu Bakr, M. (July 1963). "Physiography of Chagai-Kharan Region, West Pakistan" (PDF). Pakistan Geographical Review. 18 (2): 4–7. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
  20. 1 2 3 B., C. E. D. (January 1898). "The Indian Survey Report for 1895–96". The Geographical Journal. 11 (1): 58–61. doi:10.2307/1774853. JSTOR   1774853.
  21. ↑ Nagell 1976, p.6a
  22. ↑ Schmidt, R.G. (1973). "Use of ERTS-1 images in the search for porphyry copper deposits in Pakistani Baluchistan" (PDF). Nasa. Goddard Space Flight Center Symp. On Significant Results Obtained from the Erts-1, Vol. 1, Sect. A and B: 390. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
  23. ↑ Schmidt, Robert G. (January–February 1976). "Exploration for porphyry copper deposits in Pakistan using digital processing of Landsat-1 data" (PDF). Journal of Research of the US Geological Survey. 4 (1): 29. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
  24. 1 2 Nagell 1975, p.19
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sheikh, Munawar A. (December 2009). "Renewable energy resource potential in Pakistan". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 13 (9): 2701. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2009.06.029.
  26. 1 2 3 Perello et al. 2008, p.1589
  27. 1 2 3 Whitney, John W. (2006). "Geology, Water, and Wind in the Lower Helmand Basin, Southern Afghanistan" (PDF). pubs.usgs.gov. USGS. pp. 8, 18. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
  28. ↑ Nicholson, K.N.; Khan, M.; Mahmood, K. (August 2010). "Geochemistry of the Chagai–Raskoh arc, Pakistan: Complex arc dynamics spanning the Cretaceous to the Quaternary". Lithos . 118 (3–4): 338–348. Bibcode:2010Litho.118..338N. doi:10.1016/j.lithos.2010.05.008.
  29. 1 2 Richards et al. 2012, p.3127
  30. ↑ Siddiqui et al. 2009, p.21
  31. ↑ Saadat and Stern 2011, p.611
  32. 1 2 Saadat and Stern 2011, p.617
  33. ↑ Nagell 1975, p.54
  34. ↑ Nagell 1975, p.20
  35. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ahmad et al., p.5
  36. ↑ McMahon et al. 1897, p.293
  37. 1 2 McMahon 1909, p.51
  38. 1 2 3 McMahon 1909, pp.78–79
  39. 1 2 3 Tate, George Passman (1909). "The frontiers of Baluchistan: travels on the borders of Persia and Afghanistan". digitalcommons.unomaha.edu. University of Nebraska, Omaha. pp. 43–44. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
  40. ↑ McMahon, A. H. (April 1897). "The Southern Borderlands of Afghanistan". The Geographical Journal. 9 (4): 393–415. doi:10.2307/1774479. JSTOR   1774479.
  41. ↑ McMahon et al. 1897, pp.308–309
  42. 1 2 3 Ahmad et al., p.6
  43. 1 2 Bankwitz, Peter; Bankwitz, E. (January 1988). "Phototectonic Interpretation of Selected Areas on the Western Margin of the Indian Ocean" (PDF). ResearchGate . p. 645. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
  44. ↑ Siddiqui et al. 2009, p.2
  45. 1 2 K.S. Valdiya (26 November 2015). The Making of India: Geodynamic Evolution. Springer. p. 8. ISBN   978-3-319-25029-8.
  46. ↑ Richards, Jeremy P. (October 2015). "Tectonic, magmatic, and metallogenic evolution of the Tethyan orogen: From subduction to collision". Ore Geology Reviews. 70: 332. doi: 10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.11.009 .
  47. ↑ Ahmad et al., p.19
  48. ↑ Ahmad et al., p.21
  49. 1 2 Mughal, Mohammad Naseer (1998). "Geothermal resources of Pakistan and methods for early stage exploration" (PDF). National Energy Authority of Iceland. Geothermal Training Programme. p. 251. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
  50. ↑ Ahmad et al., p.13
  51. ↑ Ahmad et al., p.22
  52. 1 2 Ahmad et al., p.14
  53. ↑ Ahmad et al., p.17
  54. ↑ Alam Zaigham, Nayyer; Alam Nayyar, Zeeshan; Hisamuddin, Noushaba (January 2009). "Review of geothermal energy resources in Pakistan". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 13 (1): 231. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2007.07.010.
  55. ↑ Nagell 1975, p.57
  56. 1 2 3 Nagell 1976, p.6
  57. ↑ Nagell 1976, p.1
  58. ↑ Nagell 1975, p.2
  59. ↑ Nagell 1975, p.56
  60. ↑ Sharma, N. L. (4 November 2014). "The Sulphur Resources of India". Transactions of the Indian Ceramic Society. 2 (2): 67. doi:10.1080/0371750X.1943.11012015.
  61. ↑ Nagell 1976, p.5
  62. ↑ Razique, A.; Tosdal, R. M.; Creaser, R. A. (27 August 2014). "Temporal Evolution of the Western Porphyry Cu-Au Systems at Reko Diq, Balochistan, Western Pakistan". Economic Geology. 109 (7): 2004. doi:10.2113/econgeo.109.7.2003.
  63. ↑ Sharma, N. L. (26 August 2014). "Aluminium Ores". Transactions of the Indian Ceramic Society. 5 (3): 138. doi:10.1080/0371750X.1946.10877806.
  64. ↑ McMahon et al. 1897, p.305
  65. ↑ Richards et al. 2012, p.3027

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.