Lemon

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Lemon
P1030323.JPG
A fruiting lemon tree (blossom visible)
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Sapindales
Family: Rutaceae
Genus: Citrus
Species:
C. ×limon
Binomial name
Citrus ×limon
Synonyms [1]
List
  • Citrus × aurantium subsp. bergamia(Risso & Poit.) Engl.
  • Citrusaurantium subsp. bergamia(Risso) Wight & Arn.
  • Citrusaurantium var. bergamia(Risso) Brandis
  • Citrus × aurantium var. mellarosa(Risso) Engl.
  • Citrus × bergamiaRisso & Poit.
  • Citrus × bergamia subsp. mellarosa(Risso) D.Rivera & al.
  • Citrus × bergamotaRaf.
  • Citrus × limodulcisD.Rivera, Obón & F.Méndez
  • Citrus × limonelloidesHayata
  • Citrus × limoniaOsbeck
  • Citrus × limonia var. digitataRisso
  • Citrus × limonumRisso
  • Citrusmedica var. limonL.
  • Citrusmedica f. limon(L.) M.Hiroe
  • Citrusmedica f. limon(L.) Hiroë
  • Citrusmedica subsp. limonia(Risso) Hook. f.
  • Citrus × medica var. limonum(Risso) Brandis
  • Citrus × medica subsp. limonum(Risso) Engl.
  • Citrusmedica var. limonum(Risso) Brandis
  • Citrus × mellarosaRisso
  • Citrus × meyeriYu.Tanaka
  • Citrus × vulgarisFerrarius ex Mill.
  • Limon × vulgarisFerrarius ex Miller

The lemon (Citrus × limon) is a species of small evergreen tree in the flowering plant family Rutaceae, native to Asia, primarily Northeast India (Assam), Northern Myanmar, and China. [2]

The tree's ellipsoidal yellow fruit is used for culinary and non-culinary purposes throughout the world, primarily for its juice, which has both culinary and cleaning uses. [2] The pulp and rind are also used in cooking and baking. The juice of the lemon is about 5–6% citric acid,[ citation needed ] with a pH of around 2.2, [3] giving it a sour taste. The distinctive sour taste of lemon juice, derived from the citric acid, makes it a key ingredient in drinks and foods [4] such as lemonade and lemon meringue pie.

Description

The lemon tree produces an ellipsoidal yellow fruit.

Chemistry

Lemons contain numerous phytochemicals, including polyphenols, terpenes, and tannins. [5] Lemon juice contains slightly more citric acid than lime juice (about 47 g/L), nearly twice the citric acid of grapefruit juice, and about five times the amount of citric acid found in orange juice. [6]

Taxonomy

Taxonomic illustration by Franz Eugen Kohler Citrus x limon - Kohler-s Medizinal-Pflanzen-041.jpg
Taxonomic illustration by Franz Eugen Köhler

The origin of the lemon is unknown, though lemons are thought to have first grown in Assam (a region in northeast India), northern Myanmar, or China. [2] [ failed verification ] A genomic study of the lemon indicated it was a hybrid between bitter orange (sour orange) and citron. [7] [8]

The origin of the word lemon may be Middle Eastern. [2] The word draws from the Old French limon, then Italian limone, from the Arabic laymūn or līmūn, and from the Persian līmūn, a generic term for citrus fruit, which is a cognate of Sanskrit (nimbū, 'lime'). [9]

Varieties

The 'Bonnie Brae' is oblong, smooth, thin-skinned, and seedless. [10] These are mostly grown in San Diego County, US. [11]

The 'Eureka' grows year-round and abundantly. This is the common supermarket lemon, also known as "Four Seasons" (Quatre Saisons) because of its ability to produce fruit and flowers together throughout the year. This variety is also available as a plant for domestic customers. [12] There is also a pink-fleshed Eureka lemon with a green and yellow variegated outer skin. [13]

The Lisbon lemon is very similar to the Eureka and is the other common supermarket lemon. It is smoother than the Eureka, has thinner skin, and has fewer or no seeds. It generally produces more juice than the Eureka. [14] [15]

The 'Femminello St. Teresa', or 'Sorrento' [16] originates in Italy. This fruit's zest is high in lemon oils. It is the variety traditionally used in the making of limoncello .

The 'Yen Ben' is an Australasian cultivar. [17]

Cultivation

History

Lemons are supposed to have entered Europe near southern Italy no later than the second century AD, during the time of Ancient Rome. [2] They were later introduced to Persia and then to Iraq and Egypt around 700 AD. [2] The lemon was first recorded in literature in a 10th-century Arabic treatise on farming and was also used as an ornamental plant in early Islamic gardens. [2] It was distributed widely throughout the Arab world and the Mediterranean region between 1000 and 1150. [2] An article on Lemon and lime tree cultivation in Andalusia, Spain, is brought down in Ibn al-'Awwam's 12th-century agricultural work, Book on Agriculture. [18]

The first substantial cultivation of lemons in Europe began in Genoa in the middle of the 15th century. The lemon was later introduced to the Americas in 1493, when Christopher Columbus brought lemon seeds to Hispaniola on his voyages. Spanish conquest throughout the New World helped spread lemon seeds. It was mainly used as an ornamental plant and for medicine. [2] In the 19th century, lemons were increasingly planted in Florida and California. [2]

In 1747, James Lind's experiments on seamen suffering from scurvy involved adding lemon juice to their diets, though vitamin C was not yet known as an important dietary ingredient. [2] [19]

Propagation

Lemons need a minimum temperature of around 7 °C (45 °F), so they are not hardy year-round in temperate climates, but become hardier as they mature. [20] Citrus require minimal pruning by trimming overcrowded branches, with the tallest branch cut back to encourage bushy growth. [20] Throughout summer, pinching back tips of the most vigorous growth assures more abundant canopy development. As mature plants may produce unwanted, fast-growing shoots (called "water shoots"), these are removed from the main branches at the bottom or middle of the plant. [20]

The tradition of urinating near a lemon tree [21] [22] [23] may be beneficial as urine is a fertilizer.

In cultivation in the UK, the cultivars "Meyer" [24] and "Variegata" [25] have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017). [26]

Production

Lemon (and lime) production, 2022

(in millions of tonnes)

Country2022
Flag of India.svg  India 3.8
Flag of Mexico.svg  Mexico 3.1
Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg  China 2.6
Flag of Argentina.svg  Argentina 1.8
Flag of Brazil.svg  Brazil 1.6
Flag of Turkey.svg  Turkey 1.3
World 21.5
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations. [27]

In 2022, world production of lemons (combined with limes for reporting) was 22 million tonnes led by India with 18% of the total. Mexico and China were major secondary producers (table).

Lemon, raw, without peel
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 121 kJ (29 kcal)
9.32 g
Sugars 2.5 g
Dietary fiber 2.8 g
Fat
0.3 g
1.1 g
Vitamins Quantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
3%
0.04 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
2%
0.02 mg
Niacin (B3)
1%
0.1 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
4%
0.19 mg
Vitamin B6
5%
0.08 mg
Folate (B9)
3%
11 μg
Choline
1%
5.1 mg
Vitamin C
59%
53 mg
Minerals Quantity
%DV†
Calcium
2%
26 mg
Iron
3%
0.6 mg
Magnesium
2%
8 mg
Manganese
1%
0.03 mg
Phosphorus
1%
16 mg
Potassium
5%
138 mg
Zinc
1%
0.06 mg
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, [28] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies. [29]

Uses

Nutrition

Lemon is a rich source of vitamin C, providing 64% of the Daily Value in a 100 g reference amount. Other essential nutrients are low in content.

Culinary

Lemon juice, rind, and peel are used in a wide variety of foods and drinks. The whole lemon is used to make marmalade, lemon curd and lemon liqueur. Lemon slices and lemon rind are used as a garnish for food and drinks. Lemon zest, the grated outer rind of the fruit, is used to add flavor to baked goods, puddings, rice, and other dishes.

Juice

Lemon juice is used to make lemonade, soft drinks, and cocktails. It is used in marinades for fish, where its acid neutralizes amines in fish by converting them into nonvolatile ammonium salts. In meat, the acid partially hydrolyzes tough collagen fibers, tenderizing it. [30] In the United Kingdom, lemon juice is frequently added to pancakes, especially on Shrove Tuesday.

Lemon juice is also used as a short-term preservative on certain foods that tend to oxidize and turn brown after being sliced (enzymatic browning), such as apples, bananas, and avocados, where its acid denatures the enzymes.

Peel

In Morocco, lemons are preserved in jars or barrels of salt. The salt penetrates the peel and rind, softening them, and curing them so that they last almost indefinitely. [31] The preserved lemon is used in a wide variety of dishes. Preserved lemons can also be found in Sicilian, Italian, Greek, and French dishes.

The peel can be used in the manufacture of pectin, a polysaccharide used as a gelling agent and stabilizer in food and other products. [32]

Oil

Lemon oil is extracted from oil-containing cells in the skin. A machine breaks up the cells and uses a water spray to flush off the oil. The oil–water mixture is then filtered and separated by centrifugation. [33]

Leaves

The leaves of the lemon tree are used to make a tea and for preparing cooked meats and seafoods.

Other uses

Industrial

Lemons were the primary commercial source of citric acid before the development of fermentation-based processes. [34]

Aroma

Lemon oil may be used in aromatherapy. Lemon oil aroma does not influence the human immune system, [35] but may contribute to relaxation. [36]

Other

One educational science experiment involves attaching electrodes to a lemon and using it as a battery to produce electricity. Although very low power, several lemon batteries can power a small digital watch. [37] These experiments also work with other fruits and vegetables.

Lemon juice may be used as a simple invisible ink, developed by heat. [38]

Lemon juice can be used to increase the blonde colour of hair, acting as a natural highlight after the moistened hair is exposed to sunlight. This is due to the citric acid that acts as bleach. [39] [40]

Other citrus called "lemons"

Painting by Jacob Foppens van Es Jacob Foppen van Es - Still life with pitcher.jpg
Painting by Jacob Foppens van Es

In culture

In India, a lemon may be ritually encircled around a person due to the belief that it would repel negative energies or ward off the evil eye, called nazar or drishti. It is also a common practice for owners of a new car to drive over four lemons, one under each wheel, crushing them during their first drive. This is believed to protect the driver from accidents. [42]

Hindu deities are sometimes depicted with lemons in their iconography, representing the attribute of wealth or abundance. [43]

See also

Related Research Articles

<i>Citrus</i> Genus of flowering plants

Citrus is a genus of flowering trees and shrubs in the rue family, Rutaceae. Plants in the genus produce citrus fruits, including crops such as oranges, mandarins, lemons, grapefruits, pomelos, and limes. The genus Citrus is native to South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Melanesia, and Australia. Various citrus species have been used and domesticated by indigenous cultures in these areas since ancient times. From there its cultivation spread into Micronesia and Polynesia by the Austronesian expansion ; and to the Middle East and the Mediterranean via the incense trade route, and onwards to Europe and the Americas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Calamansi</span> Hybrid species of citrus

Calamansi, also known as calamondin, Philippine lime, or Philippine lemon, is a citrus hybrid cultivated predominantly in the Philippines. It is native to the Philippines, parts of Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei, as well as parts of southern China and Taiwan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grapefruit</span> Citrus fruit

The grapefruit is a subtropical citrus tree known for its relatively large, sour to semi-sweet, somewhat bitter fruit. The interior flesh is segmented and varies in color from pale yellow to dark pink/red.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mandarin orange</span> Small citrus fruit

The mandarin orange, also known as mandarin or mandarine, is a small, rounded citrus tree fruit. Treated as a distinct species of orange, it is usually eaten plain or in fruit salads. Tangerines are a group of orange-colored citrus fruit consisting of hybrids of mandarin orange with some pomelo contribution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kaffir lime</span> Citrus fruit native to tropical Southeast Asia

Citrus hystrix, called the kaffir lime, Thai lime or makrut lime, is a citrus fruit native to tropical Southeast Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lime (fruit)</span> Citrus fruit

A lime is a citrus fruit, which is typically round, green in color, 3–6 centimetres (1.2–2.4 in) in diameter, and contains acidic juice vesicles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Citron</span> Species of citrus plant

The citron, historically cedrate, is a large fragrant citrus fruit with a thick rind. It is said to resemble a 'huge, rough lemon'. It is one of the original citrus fruits from which all other citrus types developed through natural hybrid speciation or artificial hybridization. Though citron cultivars take on a wide variety of physical forms, they are all closely related genetically. It is used in Asian and Mediterranean cuisine, traditional medicines, perfume, and religious rituals and offerings. Hybrids of citrons with other citrus are commercially more prominent, notably lemons and many limes.

<i>Citrus limetta</i> Citrus fruit and plant

Citrus limetta, alternatively considered to be a cultivar of Citrus limon, C. limon 'Limetta', is a species of citrus, commonly known as mousami, musami, sweet lime, sweet lemon, and sweet limetta, it is a member of the sweet lemons. It is small and round like a common lime in shape. It is a cross between the citron and a bitter orange.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pomelo</span> Citrus fruit from Southeast Asia

The pomelo, from the family Rutaceae, is the largest citrus fruit, and the principal ancestor of the grapefruit. It is a natural, non-hybrid, citrus fruit, native to Southeast Asia. Similar in taste to a sweet grapefruit, the pomelo is commonly consumed and used for festive occasions throughout Southeast Asia and East Asia. As with the grapefruit, phytochemicals in the pomelo have the potential for drug interactions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Meyer lemon</span> Citrus fruit

Citrus × meyeri, the Meyer lemon, is a hybrid citrus fruit native to China. It is not a lemon, but is instead a cross between a citron and a mandarin/pomelo hybrid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Key lime</span> Citrus fruit and plant

The Key lime or acid lime is a citrus hybrid native to tropical Southeast Asia. It has a spherical fruit, 2.5–5 centimetres in diameter. The Key lime is usually picked while it is still green, but it becomes yellow when ripe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rangpur (fruit)</span> Species of fruit and plant

Rangpur, Citrus × limonia or Citrus reticulata × medica, sometimes called the rangpur lime, mandarin lime or lemandarin, is a hybrid between the mandarin orange and the citron. It is a citrus fruit with a very acidic taste and an orange peel and flesh.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zest (ingredient)</span> Scraped skin of citrus fruit

Zest is a food ingredient that is prepared by scraping or cutting from the rind of unwaxed citrus fruits such as lemon, orange, citron, and lime. Zest is used to add flavor to foods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orange (fruit)</span> Citrus fruit

An orange, also called sweet orange to distinguish it from the bitter orange, is the fruit of a tree in the family Rutaceae. Botanically, this is the hybrid Citrus × sinensis, between the pomelo and the mandarin orange. The chloroplast genome, and therefore the maternal line, is that of pomelo. The sweet orange has had its full genome sequenced.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sweet lemon</span> Index of plants with the same common name

Sweet lemon and sweet lime refer to groups of citrus hybrids that contain low acid pulp and juice. They are hybrids often similar to non-sweet lemons or limes, but with less citron parentage. Sweet limes and lemons are not sharply separated:

The sweet lime, Citrus limettioides Tan., is often confused with the sweet lemon, C. limetta Tan., which, in certain areas, is referred to as "sweet lime". In some of the literature, it is impossible to tell which fruit is under discussion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ponderosa lemon</span> Citrus fruit and plant

The ponderosa lemon is a citrus hybrid of a pomelo and a citron. It is not the same as the 'Yuma Ponderosa' lemon-pomelo hybrid used as citrus rootstock.

The micrantha is a wild citrus from the papeda group, native to southern Philippines, particularly islands of Cebu and Bohol. Two varieties are recognized: small-flowered papeda, locally known as biasong, and small-fruited papeda or samuyao.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Citrus taxonomy</span> Botanical classification of the genus Citrus

Citrus taxonomy refers to the botanical classification of the species, varieties, cultivars, and graft hybrids within the genus Citrus and related genera, found in cultivation and in the wild.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Palestinian sweet lime</span> Species of fruit and plant

Citrus limettioides, Palestinian sweet lime or Indian sweet lime or common sweet lime, alternatively considered a cultivar of Citrus × limon, C. × limon 'Indian Lime', is a low-acid lime used in Palestine for food, juice and rootstock. It is a member of the sweet limes. Like the Meyer lemon, it is the result of a cross between the citron and a mandarin/pomelo hybrid distinct from sweet and sour oranges.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pompia</span> Variety of plant

Pompia, also called pumpia, sa pompia, spompia, and China citron, is a Citrus hybrid cultivated for its edible fruit. It is a taxonomical synonym of Citrus medica.

References

  1. ↑ "Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck". World Flora Online. The World Flora Online Consortium. 2022. Archived from the original on March 14, 2024. Retrieved July 23, 2022.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Julia F. Morton (1987). "Lemon in Fruits of Warm Climates". Purdue University. pp. 160–168. Archived from the original on November 26, 2019. Retrieved December 18, 2007.
  3. ↑ James N. Spencer; George M. Bodner; Lyman H. Rickard (2010). Chemistry: Structure and Dynamics. John Wiley & Sons. p. 481. ISBN   9780470920930. Archived from the original on October 4, 2023. Retrieved August 22, 2023.
  4. ↑ Comprehensive Natural Products II: Chemistry and Biology. Elsevier. 2010. ISBN   9780080453828. Archived from the original on October 4, 2023. Retrieved August 22, 2023.
  5. ↑ Rauf A, Uddin G, Ali J (2014). "Phytochemical analysis and radical scavenging profile of juices of Citrus sinensis, Citrus aurantifolia, and Citrus limonum". Org Med Chem Lett. 4: 5. doi: 10.1186/2191-2858-4-5 . PMC   4091952 . PMID   25024932.
  6. ↑ Penniston KL, Nakada SY, Holmes RP, Assimos DG (2008). "Quantitative Assessment of Citric Acid in Lemon Juice, Lime Juice, and Commercially-Available Fruit Juice Products". Journal of Endourology. 22 (3): 567–570. doi:10.1089/end.2007.0304. PMC   2637791 . PMID   18290732.
  7. ↑ Gulsen, O.; M. L. Roose (2001). "Lemons: Diversity and Relationships with Selected Citrus Genotypes as Measured with Nuclear Genome Markers". Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. 126 (3): 309–317. doi: 10.21273/JASHS.126.3.309 .
  8. ↑ Genetic origin of cultivated citrus determined: Researchers find evidence of origins of orange, lime, lemon, grapefruit, other citrus species" Archived September 21, 2017, at the Wayback Machine , Science Daily, January 26, 2011 (Retrieved February 10, 2017).
  9. ↑ Douglas Harper. "Online Etymology Dictionary". Archived from the original on August 6, 2011. Retrieved May 13, 2012.
  10. ↑ Spalding, William A. (1885). The orange: its culture in California. Riverside, California: Press and Horticulturist Steam Print. p.  88 . Retrieved March 2, 2012. Bonnie Brae lemon.
  11. ↑ Carque, Otto (2006) [1923]. Rational Diet: An Advanced Treatise on the Food Question. Los Angeles, California: Kessinger Publishing. p. 195. ISBN   978-1-4286-4244-7. Archived from the original on March 14, 2024. Retrieved March 2, 2012.
  12. ↑ Buchan, Ursula (January 22, 2005). "Kitchen garden: lemon tree". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on March 13, 2014. Retrieved January 24, 2014.
  13. ↑ Vaiegated pink Archived December 1, 2017, at the Wayback Machine at the Citrus Variety Collection.
  14. ↑ "frostlisbon". citrusvariety.ucr.edu. Archived from the original on November 6, 2020. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  15. ↑ says, 3 Easy Tips: How to Plant Lemon Seeds at Home Indoors or Outdoors (February 1, 2007). "Eureka Lemon and Lisbon Lemon: Kitchen Basics". Harvest to Table. Archived from the original on November 6, 2020. Retrieved September 27, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  16. ↑ "Taste of a thousand lemons". Los Angeles Times . September 8, 2004. Archived from the original on December 22, 2013. Retrieved November 21, 2011.
  17. ↑ "New Zealand Citrus". ceventura.ucdavis.edu. Archived from the original on June 10, 2010. Retrieved June 13, 2010.
  18. ↑ Ibn al-'Awwam, Yaḥyá (1864). Le livre de l'agriculture d'Ibn-al-Awam (kitab-al-felahah) (in French). Translated by J.-J. Clement-Mullet. Paris: A. Franck. pp. 300–301 (ch. 7 - Article 32). OCLC   780050566. (pp. 300–301 (Article XXXII)
  19. ↑ James Lind (1757). A treatise on the scurvy. Second edition. London: A. Millar.
  20. 1 2 3 "Citrus". Royal Horticultural Society. 2017. Archived from the original on April 20, 2017. Retrieved April 19, 2017.
  21. ↑ Capomolla, Fabian; Pember, Matthew (2011). "Lemon". The Little Veggie Patch Co. Sydney, New South Wales: Plum. p. 129. ISBN   9781742628417. Archived from the original on March 14, 2024. Retrieved April 27, 2020. Urinating around a lemon tree provides a tonic of water, salt and minerals, much like that of an organic fertiliser [...].
  22. ↑ Capomolla, Fabian (2017). Growing Food the Italian Way. The Hungry Gardener. Plum. p. 168. ISBN   9781760554903. Archived from the original on March 14, 2024. Retrieved April 27, 2020. Yes, it is true - urinating on the soil around a lemon tree is beneficial to the plant. Just don't overdo it, as that can be detrimental.
  23. ↑ The World's Fastest Indian - "Munro was never known to actually urinate on his lemon tree; film director Roger Donaldson added that detail as a tribute to his own father, who did."
  24. ↑ "RHS Plantfinder - Citrus × limon 'Meyer'". Archived from the original on January 4, 2020. Retrieved January 30, 2018.
  25. ↑ "RHS Plantfinder - Citrus × limon 'Variegata'". Archived from the original on December 30, 2019. Retrieved January 30, 2018.
  26. ↑ "AGM Plants - Ornamental" (PDF). Royal Horticultural Society. July 2017. p. 20. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 5, 2018. Retrieved January 24, 2018.
  27. ↑ "FAOSTAT". www.fao.org. Retrieved March 23, 2024.
  28. ↑ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels" . Retrieved March 28, 2024.
  29. ↑ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US). ISBN   978-0-309-48834-1. PMID   30844154.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ↑ "Fruit enzymes tenderise meat". Science Learning Hub. Archived from the original on May 23, 2020. Retrieved May 14, 2020.
  31. ↑ Moskin, Julia. "Preserved Lemons Recipe". NYT Cooking. Archived from the original on May 13, 2020. Retrieved May 14, 2020.
  32. ↑ Dimopoulou, Maria; Alba, Katerina; Campbell, Grant; Kontogiorgos, Vassilis (November 1, 2019). "Pectin recovery and characterization from lemon juice waste streams". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 99 (14): 6191–6198. Bibcode:2019JSFA...99.6191D. doi:10.1002/jsfa.9891. ISSN   1097-0010. PMID   31250441. S2CID   195760607.
  33. ↑ Tranchida, Peter Quinto (2010), "Advanced Analytical Techniques for the Analysis of Citrus Oils", Citrus Oils, CRC Press, pp. 482–516, doi:10.1201/b10314-16, ISBN   978-1-4398-0029-4
  34. ↑ M. Hofrichter (2010). Industrial Applications. Springer. p. 224. ISBN   978-3-642-11458-8.
  35. ↑ Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K.; Graham, J. E.; Malarkey, W. B.; Porter, K; Lemeshow, S; Glaser, R (2008). "Olfactory influences on mood and autonomic, endocrine, and immune function". Psychoneuroendocrinology. 33 (3): 328–39. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.11.015. PMC   2278291 . PMID   18178322.
  36. ↑ Cooke, B; Ernst, E (2000). "Aromatherapy: A systematic review". British Journal of General Practice. 50 (455): 493–6. PMC   1313734 . PMID   10962794.
  37. ↑ "Lemon Power". California Energy Commission. Archived from the original on May 19, 2017. Retrieved December 7, 2014.
  38. ↑ Mirsky, Steve (April 20, 2010). "Invisible Ink and More: The Science of Spying in the Revolutionary War". Scientific American. Archived from the original on October 21, 2016. Retrieved October 15, 2016.
  39. ↑ "Here's how to lighten your hair at home with lemon juice (it actually works)". Glamour UK. Bianca London. 2020. Archived from the original on September 28, 2020. Retrieved September 16, 2020.
  40. ↑ "Does lemon juice really lighten hair?". Klorane Laboratories. 2020. Archived from the original on January 22, 2022. Retrieved September 18, 2020.
  41. 1 2 3 4 5 Curk, Franck; Ollitrault, Frédérique; Garcia-Lor, Andres; Luro, François; Navarro, Luis; Ollitrault, Patrick (2016). "Phylogenetic origin of limes and lemons revealed by cytoplasmic and nuclear markers". Annals of Botany. 11 (4): 565–583. doi:10.1093/aob/mcw005. PMC   4817432 . PMID   26944784.
  42. ↑ Leslie, Julia (1992). Roles and Rituals for Hindu Women. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 116. ISBN   978-81-208-1036-5.
  43. ↑ Pal, Pratapaditya; Canada, National Gallery of; Arts (Firm), Bayeux (1997). Divine Images, Human Visions: The Max Tanenbaum Collection of South Asian and Himalayan Art in the National Gallery of Canada. National Gallery of Canada. p. 41. ISBN   978-1-896209-05-0.
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