Women in Africa

Last updated
A Congolese woman asserts women's rights with the message 'The mother is as important as the father' printed on her pagne, 2015. 18 mai 2015, Nyunzu, Katanga, RD Congo - Une femme congolaise defend et promeut les droits des femmes via un message imprime sur ses pagnes (17962257508).jpg
A Congolese woman asserts women's rights with the message 'The mother is as important as the father' printed on her pagne , 2015.

The culture, evolution, and history of women who were born in, live in, and are from the continent of Africa reflect the evolution and history of the African continent itself.

Contents

Numerous short studies regarding women's history in African nations have been conducted. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Many studies focus on the historic roles and status of women in specific countries and regions, such as Egypt, Ethiopia, Morocco, Nigeria [7] Lesotho, [8] and sub-Saharan Africa. [9] [10] Recently, scholars have begun to focus on the evolution of women's status throughout the history of Africa using less common sources, such as songs from Malawi, weaving techniques in Sokoto, and historical linguistics. [11]

The status of women in Africa is varied across nations and regions. For example, Rwanda is the only country in the world where women hold more than half the seats in parliament — 51.9% as of July 2019, [12] [13] but Morocco only has one female minister in its cabinet. [13] Significant efforts towards gender equality have been made through the creation of the African Charter on Human and People's Rights, which encourages member states to end discrimination and violence against women. [14] With the exception of Morocco and Burundi, all African states have adopted this charter. [15] However, despite these strides towards equality, women still face various issues related to gender inequality, such as disproportionate levels of poverty and education, poor health and nutrition, lack of political power, limited workforce participation, gender-based violence, female genital mutilation, and child marriage. [16] [17] [18]

History of African women

Mural of a Makurian noblewoman protected by Virgin Mary, 12th century Makurian princess (12th century).png
Mural of a Makurian noblewoman protected by Virgin Mary, 12th century
Female soldier of the PAIGC liberation army playing cards, Guinea-Bissau, 1973 ASC Leiden - Coutinho Collection - 2 17 - PAIGC soldiers in Guinea-Bissau - Woman PAIGC soldier playing cards - 1973.tif
Female soldier of the PAIGC liberation army playing cards, Guinea-Bissau, 1973

The study of African women's history emerged as a field relatively soon after African history became a widely respected academic subject. Historians such as Jan Vansina and Walter Rodney forced Western academia to acknowledge the existence of precolonial African societies and states in the wake of the African independence movements of the 1960s, although they mainly focused on men's history. Ester Boserup, a scholar of historical economics, published her groundbreaking book, Women's Role in Economic Development, in 1970. [19] This book illustrated thnal role women had played in the history of Africa as economic producers and how those systems had been disrupted by colonialism. By the 1980s, scholars had picked up threads of African women's history across the continent, for example, George Brooks' 1976 study of women traders in precolonial Senegal, Margaret Jean Hays' 1976 study of how economic change in colonial Kenya affected Luo women, and Kristin Mann's 1985 study on marriage in Nigeria. Over time, historians have debated the role and status of women in precolonial vs. colonial society, explored how women have dealt with changing forms of oppression, examined how phenomena like domesticity became gendered, unearthed women's roles in national struggles for independence, [20] and even argued that the category of "woman" in some cases cannot be applied in precolonial contexts. [21] Women have been shown to be essential historical, economic and social actors in practically every region of Africa for centuries.

Culture

In the home

From the 1940s until Morocco's declaration of independence from the tutelage of France in 1956, Moroccan women lived in family units that were "enclosed households" or harems . The tradition of the harem lifestyle for women gradually ended upon Morocco's independence from France in 1956. [22]

Women in Southern Rhodesia in the 1940's and early 50's were not educated in Western domestic lifestyles. Women Clubs began to emerge where women aimed to educate one another on domestic living and hygiene. Helen Mangwende led the movement in Southern Rhodesia and founded the FAWC (Federation of African Women Clubs). This group had over 700 members in 1950.

The traditional division of labour in Senegal saw Senegalese women as responsible for household tasks such as cooking, cleaning, and childcare. They were also responsible for a large share of agricultural work, including weeding and harvesting for common crops such as rice. In recent decades, economic change and urbanization has led to many young men migrating to the cities like Dakar. Rural women have become increasingly involved in managing village forestry resources and operating millet and rice mills.

In society

Gender discrimination was solidified across the continent during the colonial era. In the pre-colonial period, women held chieftaincies in their own right, and some tribes even had traditions to pass dynastic rights to exclusively male titles to royal descendants through the matrilineal line (e.g., Asanteman, Balobedu, Ijawland, Wolof kingdoms). Colonialism eroded the power of these chieftaincies and traditions, and reinforced what was by then an already ascendant patriarchy thereafter. This was met with fierce opposition, most famously in the case of the Abeokuta women's revolt in Nigeria. Following independence, sovereign states solidified the gender norms and class structures inherited from their colonial predecessors, as both the first and second generations of African administrations failed to restore women's traditional powers. This led to more opposition, and over the course of the past couple of decades there has been a significant improvement in the situation.

Titled females throughout Africa's history include Fatim Beye, Ndoye Demba and Ndate Yalla Mbodj of Senegal, Moremi, Idia, Amina, Orompoto, Nana Asma'u and Efunroye Tinubu of Nigeria, Yaa Asantewaa of Ghana, Yennenga of Burkina Faso, Hangbe of Benin, Makeda, Zawditu and Embet Ilen of Ethiopia and Eritrea, Nandi of South Africa and Hatshepsut of Egypt. All are hailed as inspirations for contemporary African women. Many of Africa's contemporary titled women are members of the African Queens and Women Cultural Leaders Network, a voluntary organization.

In literature

Notable African writers have focused in their work on issues specifically concerning women in Africa, including Nawal El Saadawi (in books such as Woman at Point Zero and The Hidden Face of Eve), Flora Nwapa ( Efuru ), Ama Ata Aidoo ( Anowa , Changes: A Love Story ), and Buchi Emecheta ( The Bride Price , The Slave Girl , The Joys of Motherhood ). [23]

Education

Sub-Saharan Africa

Although sub-Saharan African countries have made considerable strides in providing equal access to education for boys and girls, 23% of girls do not receive a primary education. [24] Factors such as a girl's social class and mother's education heavily influence her ability to attain an education [25] Without easy access to schools, mothers are often the first and perhaps only form of education that a girl may receive. [26] In Côte d'Ivoire, girls are 35 times more likely to attend secondary school if their father graduated from college. [25] With 40% of girls getting married before the age of 18 in sub-Saharan Africa, girls are often forced to drop out of school to start families. [27] Early marriage reinforces the cultural belief that educating daughters is a waste of resources because parents will not receive any economic benefit once their daughter is married to another family. This leads to the phenomena known as son-preference where families will choose to send their sons to school rather than their daughters because of the economic benefit that could educated sons afford the family. In addition, girls that do attend school tend to attend schools that are of lower quality. Bad quality schools are characterized by their lack of course offerings and weak preparation for the workforce. [25] Another issue in education systems is the segregation of school subjects by gender. Girls are more likely to take domestic science and biology courses, whereas boys are more likely to take mathematics, chemistry, engineering, and vocational training. [28] [29] According to UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 58.8% of women are literate in 2018. [30] However, literacy rates within sub-Saharan Africa vary a lot from Chad having a 14% female literacy rate in comparison to Seychelles 96%. [30]

South Africa

According to Rowena Martineau's analysis on the educational disparities between men and women in South Africa, women have been historically overlooked within the education system. [31] Some barriers women face in receiving education is that their education is less prioritized than their brothers, sexual assault is a common fear and widespread occurrence, and the social pressures to become married and start a family all hinder women's opportunity to become educated. Furthermore, women choose to study nursing and teaching above any other profession, which further excludes them from entering the higher-paying jobs in STEM, that also contributes to gender inequality. [31]

Sierra Leone

Since the founding of Sierra Leone in 1787, the women in Sierra Leone have been a major influence in the political and economic development of the nation. They have also played an important role in the education system, founding schools and colleges, with some such as Hannah Benka-Coker being honoured with the erection of a statue for her contributions [32] and Lati Hyde-Forster, first woman to graduate from Fourah Bay College being honored with a doctor of civil laws degree by the University of Sierra Leone. [33]

Angola

In Angola, groups like the Organization of Angolan Women were founded in order to provide easier access to education and voting ability. The organization also advocated the passing of anti-discrimination and literacy laws. [34]

North Africa

The seven countries—Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia, and Western Sahara—that make up North Africa have unique educational environments because of their relative wealth and strong Islamic faith. [25] Gender norms and roles are very strictly defined to protect women's honor and modesty, which have inadvertently become barriers to women receiving equal education as men as women are expected to stay at home and raise a family. [35] These gender expectations devalue women's education and bar girls access to education. As a result, North African countries such as Egypt and Morocco have higher illiteracy rates for women than other countries with similar GDPs. [36] Similar to sub-Saharan Africa, women are disproportionately over-represented in the professions of teaching, medicine, and social welfare. Gender stereotypes are further reinforced by the fact that only 20% of women are part of the labor force. This creates a negative cycle wherein women are expected to stay at home, barring them from further educational opportunities, and creating barriers for women to gain the education and skills necessary to find gainful employment. [35]

Morocco

Morocco's female literacy rate is 65%, which is still significantly lower than North Africa's female literacy rate of 73%. [36] Moroccan women live under a strong framework of acceptable gender roles and expectations. Agnaou's study in 2004 found that for 40% of illiterate women, the greatest obstacle for women to become literate were their parents. [37] Due to societal views of "literacy" and "education" as masculine, there is no strong policy push to educate women in Morocco. [37] There have been various literacy campaigns run by the government such as the creation of the Adult Literacy Directorate in 1997 and the National Education and Training Charter. [37] These literacy campaigns have had varying success in reducing illiteracy due to limited funding, lack of human resources, and cultural inertia.

Politics

North Africa

Algeria

Algeria is regarded as a relatively liberal nation and the status of women reflects this. [38] Unlike other countries in the region, equality for women is enshrined in Algerian laws and the constitution. [38] They can vote and run for political positions. [39]

Libya

Since independence, Libyan leaders have been committed to improving the condition of women but within the framework of Arabic and Islamic values. [40] Central to the revolution of 1969 was the empowerment of women and removal of inferior status. [41]

Niger

In Niger, many of the laws adopted by the government of Niger to protect the rights of Nigerien women are often based on Muslim beliefs. [42]

Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic

Women in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic are women who were born in, who live in, or are from the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) in the region of the Western Sahara. In Sahrawi society, women share responsibilities at every level of its community and social organization. [43] Article 41 of the Constitution of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic ensures that the state will pursue "the promotion of women and [their] political, social and cultural participation, in the construction of society and the country's development".

West Africa

Benin

The state of the rights of women in Benin has improved markedly since the restoration of democracy and the ratification of the Constitution, and the passage of the Personal and Family Code in 2004, both of which overrode various traditional customs that systematically treated women unequally. Still, inequality and discrimination persist. Polygamy and forced marriage are illegal but they still occur. [44]

Nigeria

The freedom and right for women in Africa to participate in leadership and electoral processes differs by country and even ethnic groups within the same nation. For example, in Nigeria, women in Southern Nigeria had the right to vote as early as 1950 Archived 2022-03-14 at the Wayback Machine and contested for seats in the 1959 Nigerian elections, whereas women in Northern Nigeria could not vote or contest until 1976 Archived 2022-03-14 at the Wayback Machine .

Central Africa

Democratic Republic of the Congo

Women in the Democratic Republic of the Congo have not attained a position of full equality with men, with their struggle continuing to this day. Although the Mobutu regime paid lip service to the important role of women in society, and although women enjoy some legal rights (e.g., the right to own property and the right to participate in the economic and political sectors), custom and legal constraints still limit their opportunities. [45] From 1939 to 1943, over 30% of adult Congolese women in Stanleyville (now Kisangani) were so registered. The taxes they paid constituted the second largest source of tax revenue for Stanleyville. [45]

Rwanda

Claire Wallace, Christian Haerpfer and Pamela Abbott write that, in spite of Rwanda having the highest representation of women in parliament in the world, there are three major gender issues in Rwandan society: the workloads of women, access to education and gender-based violence. They conclude that the attitudes to women in Rwanda's political institutions has not filtered through to the rest of Rwandan society, and that for men, but not women, there are generational differences when it comes to gender-based attitudes. [46]

Other countries

In 2023, the European Investment Bank and the European Commission allocated €10 million to female African entrepreneurs and firms that provide services or generate excellent jobs for women in the bioeconomy. This is accomplished through loan lines with Compagnie Financière Africaine COFINA in Côte d'Ivoire (focused on cocoa, cashews, and food crops), Senegal (for cereals and horticulture), and First Capital Bank Limited in Zambia to boost sustainable agricultural output. [47]

East Africa

Seychelles

Women in Seychelles enjoy the same legal, political, economic, and social rights as men. [48] Seychellois society is essentially matriarchal. [48] [49] Mothers tend to be dominant in the household, controlling most current expenditures and looking after the interests of the children. [48] Unwed mothers are the societal norm, and the law requires fathers to support their children. [49] Men are important for their earning ability, but their domestic role is relatively peripheral. [48] Older women can usually count on financial support from family members living at home or contributions from the earnings of grown-up children. [48]

South Sudan

A group of women from Limuru in central Kenya, 2010. A Self-Help Group from Limuru fighting food insecurity (5111553897).jpg
A group of women from Limuru in central Kenya, 2010.

The women of the Republic of South Sudan had also been active in liberation causes, by providing food and shelters to soldiers, caring for children and caring for wounded heroes and heroines during their political struggle prior to the country's independence. An example was their formation of the Katiba Banat or women's battalion. [50]

Sudan

Sudan is a developing nation that faces many challenges in regards to gender inequality. Freedom House gave Sudan the lowest possible ranking among repressive regimes during 2012. [51] South Sudan received a slightly higher rating but it was also rated as "not free". [51] In the 2013 report of 2012 data, Sudan ranks 171st out of 186 countries on the Human Development Index (HDI). [52] Sudan also is one of very few countries that are not a signatory on the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). [53] Despite all of this, there have been positive changes in regards to gender equality in Sudan. As of 2012, women comprise 24.1% of the National Assembly of Sudan. [54]

Uganda

The roles of Ugandan women are clearly subordinate to those of men, despite the substantial economic and social responsibilities of women in Uganda's many traditional societies. Women are taught to accede to the wishes of their fathers, brothers, husbands, and sometimes other men as well, and to demonstrate their subordination to men in most areas of public life. Even in the 1980s, women in rural areas of Buganda were expected to kneel when speaking to a man. At the same time, however, women shouldered the primary responsibilities for childcare and subsistence cultivation, and in the twentieth century, women have made substantial contributions to cash-crop agriculture. [55]

Workforce participation

Women in Africa are highly active whether that is within the sphere of formal or informal work. However, within the formal sphere, African women hold only 40% of formal jobs which has led to a labor gender gap of 54%. [56] [35] According to Bandara's analysis in 2015, this labor gender gap is equivalent to a US$255 billion loss in economic growth because women cannot fully contribute to economic growth. [56] In addition, women earn on average two-thirds of their male colleague's salaries. Some of the challenges African women face in finding formal work are their general lack of education and technical skills, weak protection against gender discriminatory hiring, and double burden of work with the expectation to continue housekeeping and childbearing. [57] Most of Africa's food is produced by women, but each female farmer produces significantly less food than male farmers because female farmers do not have access to the same land, fertilizers, technology, and credit to achieve maximum efficiency. [58] [59] For example, women in Ethiopia and Ghana produce 26% and 17% less food than their male counterparts as a result of resource inequality. [12]

The Senegalese government's rural development agency aims to organize village women and involve them more actively in the development process. Women play a prominent role in village health committees and prenatal and postnatal programs. In urban areas, cultural change has led to women entering the labour market as office and retail clerks, domestic workers and unskilled workers in textile mills and tuna-canning factories. Non-governmental organizations are also active in promoting women's economic opportunities in Senegal. Micro-financing loans for women's businesses have improved the economic situation of many. [60]

In May 2011, in Djibouti, Director of Gender for the Department of Women and Family Choukri Djibah launched the project SIHA (Strategic Initiative for the Horn of Africa), which is designed to support and reinforce the economic capacity of women in Djibouti, funded with a grant from the European Union of 28 Million Djibouti francs. [61]

Notable women

Ellen Johnson Sirleaf of Liberia was Africa's first woman president. [62] Since Sirleaf's election to office, Joyce Banda of Malawi, Ameenah Gurib of Mauritius and Sahle-Work Zewde of Ethiopia have also risen to the presidencies of their respective countries. Some other political leaders (in no particular order) are Sylvie Kinigi of Burundi, Luisa Diogo of Mozambique, Agathe Uwilingiyimana of Rwanda, Maria das Neves of Sao Tome and Principe, Aminata Toure of Senegal and Saara Kuugongelwa of Namibia. Each has held the office of prime minister of her country.

In addition to political leaders, African nations boast many female artists, writers, and activists. For example: Sao Tome and Principe's lyricist of the national anthem and renowned writer, Alda do Espirito Santo; South African singer and apartheid activist, Miriam Makeba; [63] Nigerian novelist and speaker, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie; Ethiopian entrepreneur of SoleRebels, Bethlehem Alemu; Nigerien architect, Mariam Kamara; and environmental activist, Wanjira Mathai; [64] Nigerian US-based philanthropist Efe Ukala; Nigerian Architect creative entrepreneur, public speaker and author Tosin Oshinowo. In Kenya Wamuyu Gakuru played a role in the Mau Mau rebellion as a fighter for Kenyan independence.

Gender-based violence

Woman from liberated Guinea-Bissau, 1974 ASC Leiden - Coutinho Collection - D 23 - Hermangono, Guinea-Bissau - Woman somewhere in the northern frontline - 1974 - 2.jpg
Woman from liberated Guinea-Bissau, 1974

The 2003 Maputo Protocol of the African Union addressed gender-based violence against women, defined as meaning "all acts perpetrated against women which cause or could cause them physical, sexual, psychological, and economic harm, including the threat to take such acts; or to undertake the imposition of arbitrary restrictions on or deprivation of fundamental freedoms in private or public life in peace time and during situations of armed conflicts or of war...". [65] [66]

In Benin, enforcement of the law against rape, the punishment for which can be up to five years in prison, is hampered by corruption, ineffective police work, and fear of social stigma. Police incompetence results in most sexual offenses being reduced to misdemeanors. Domestic violence is widespread, with penalties of up to three years in prison, but women are reluctant to report cases and authorities are reluctant to intervene in what are generally considered private matters. [67]

Female genital mutilation

In some African cultures, female genital mutilation is seen as traditional passage into womanhood and a way to purify a woman's body. [68] There are four levels of female circumcision: Type 1 involves the complete removal of the clitoris, Type 2 goes beyond Type 1 and removes the labia minora as well, Type 3 stitches the vagina after a Type 2 procedure, and Type 4 is any mutilation of vaginal tissue. [68] The procedure is very painful and often practiced without proper medical equipment and hygiene procedures leading to a high risk of infection and chronic pain. [69] Female genital mutilation is practiced in Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Nigeria, Niger, Chad, Egypt, Cameroon, Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, Uganda, Central African Republic, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Burkina Faso, Sierra Leone among others. [70]

Femicide

Femicide is broadly defined as the "intentional murder of women," [71] which includes honor killings, dowry killings, sexual orientation hate crimes, and female infanticide. According to a 2013 study by Abrahams, [72] South Africa has the fourth highest rate of female homicide with 12.9 per 100,000 women being murdered by intimate partners in South Africa annually. With a rate of 7.5/100,000 women, women in South Africa are four times more likely to be murdered with a gun than a woman in the United States. [73]

See also

North Africa

West Africa

Central Africa

East Africa

South Africa

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sub-Saharan Africa</span> Region south of the Sahara Desert

Sub-Saharan Africa, Subsahara, or Non-Mediterranean Africa is the area and regions of the continent of Africa that lie south of the Sahara. These include Central Africa, East Africa, Southern Africa, and West Africa. Geopolitically, in addition to the African countries and territories that are situated fully in that specified region, the term may also include polities that only have part of their territory located in that region, per the definition of the United Nations (UN). This is considered a non-standardized geographical region with the number of countries included varying from 46 to 48 depending on the organization describing the region. The African Union (AU) uses a different regional breakdown, recognizing all 55 member states on the continent—grouping them into five distinct and standard regions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bureau of African Affairs</span> U.S. State Department division

In the United States government, the Bureau of African Affairs (AF) is part of the U.S. Department of State and is charged with advising the Secretary of State on matters of Sub-Saharan Africa. The bureau was established in 1958. It is headed by the Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs who reports to the Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs. Molly Phee is the current Assistant Secretary.

The history of education in Africa can be roughly divided into pre- and post- colonial periods. Since the introduction of formal education to Africa by European colonists, African education, particularly in West and Central Africa, is characterised by both traditional African teachings and European-style schooling systems. The state of education reflects not only the effects of colonialism, but instability resulting from and exacerbated by armed conflicts in many regions of Africa as well as fallout from humanitarian crises such as famine, lack of drinking water, and outbreaks of diseases such as malaria and Ebola, among others. Although the quality of education and the quantity of well-equipped schools and teachers has steadily increased since the onset of the colonial period, there are still numerous inequalities evident in the existing educational systems based on region, economic status, and gender.

The Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE) is a pan-African non-governmental organization founded in 1992 by five women ministers of education to promote girls’ and women's education in sub-Saharan Africa by making sure they have access to schools and are able to complete their studies and fulfill their potential, in line with UNESCO's Education For All movement. The organisation's members include ministers of education, university vice-chancellors, education policy-makers, researchers, gender specialists and human rights activists.

Contributing to the establishment of human rights system in Africa are the United Nations, international law and the African Union which have positively influenced the betterment the human rights situation in the continent. However, extensive human rights abuses still occur in many sections of the continent. Most of the violations can be attributed to political instability, racial discrimination, corruption, post-colonialism, economic scarcity, ignorance, illness, religious bigotry, debt and bad financial management, monopoly of power, lack/absence of judicial and press autonomy, and border conflicts. Many of the provisions contained in regional, national, continental, and global agreements remained unaccomplished.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Foreign relations of the African Union</span> An African International agency

The individual member states of the African Union (AU) coordinate foreign policy through this agency, in addition to conducting their own international relations on a state-by-state basis. The AU represents the interests of African peoples at large in intergovernmental organizations (IGO's); for instance, it is a permanent observer at the United Nations' General Assembly.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crowned bullfrog</span> Species of frog

The crowned bullfrog is a species of frog in the family Dicroglossidae. It is found in the Sub-Saharan Africa . Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest, dry savanna, moist savanna, subtropical or tropical dry shrubland, subtropical or tropical moist shrubland, subtropical or tropical dry lowland grassland, subtropical or tropical seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland, rivers, intermittent rivers, freshwater lakes, intermittent freshwater lakes, freshwater marshes, intermittent freshwater marshes, freshwater springs, arable land, pastureland, rural gardens, heavily degraded former forest, and ponds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prostitution in Africa</span> Overview of the legality and practice of prostitution in Africa

The legal status of prostitution in Africa varies widely. It is frequently common in practice, partially driven by the widespread poverty in many sub-Saharan African countries, and is one of the drivers for the prevalence of AIDS in Africa. Senegal and Côte d'Ivoire permit the operations of brothels. In other countries, prostitution may be legal, but brothels are not allowed to operate. In some countries where prostitution is illegal, the law is rarely enforced.

The Network of African National Human Rights Institutions (NANHRI) is one of four regional groupings within the global network, the Global Alliance for National Human Rights Institutions (GANHRI). NANHRI promotes the establishment of national human rights institutions throughout Africa, and supports co-operation and training to strengthen and develop the monitoring, promotion, protection and advocacy work of African NHRIs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tourism in Africa</span>

Tourism is an important economic sector for many countries in Africa. There are many countries that benefit heavily from tourism like Uganda, Algeria, Egypt, South Africa, Kenya, Morocco, Tunisia, Ghana and Tanzania. The touristic particularity of Africa lies in the wide variety of points of interest, diversity and multitudes of landscapes as well as the rich cultural heritage. Also, an ecotourist industry is present in some African countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Birth control in Africa</span>

Access to safe and adequate sexual and reproductive healthcare constitutes part of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as upheld by the United Nations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Benin</span>

Women in Benin have gained more rights since the restoration of democracy and the ratification of the Constitution, and the passage of the Personal and Family Code in 2004. These both overrode various traditional customs that systematically treated women unequally. Still, inequality and discrimination persist. "Girls from the age of five or so are actively involved in housekeeping, sibling care, and agriculture." Society could think about of a woman's role are a housemaid, caretaker, or babysitter. A woman's role is to be a housemaker and nothing at all, but women have much potential to be more than a housemaker. With laws taking charge of what a woman can be as a career of how they are being useful more in the house than in a men's job position. Moreover, these rules apply to women by their gender that has not changed for a while. And there has been inequality based on being the opposite gender which these rules should immediately change if the society wants to get better to have equality for the female race.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corruption in Senegal</span> Institutional corruption in the country

On Transparency International's 2023 Corruption Perceptions Index, Senegal scored 43 on a scale from 0 to 100. When ranked by score, Senegal ranked 70th among the 180 countries in the Index, where the country ranked first is perceived to have the most honest public sector. For comparison with worldwide scores, Senegal's score was also the average score in 2023; the best score was 90 and the worst score was 11. For comparison with regional scores, the average score among sub-Saharan African countries was 33. The highest score in sub-Saharan Africa was 71 and the lowest score was 11.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corruption in Ethiopia</span> Institutional corruption in the country

There are several sectors in Ethiopia where businesses are particularly vulnerable to corruption. Land distribution and administration is a sector where corruption is institutionalized, and facilitation payments as well as bribes are often demanded from businesses when they deal with land-related issues.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Female empowerment in Nigeria</span> Economic and social movement

Female empowerment in Nigeria is an economic process that involves empowering Nigerian women as a poverty reduction measure. Empowerment is the development of women in terms of politics, social and economic strength in nation development. It is also a way of reducing women's vulnerability and dependency in all spheres of life. It can be noted that the aggregate of educational, political, health and legal empowerment are key to women's empowerment in Nigeria. Like many African women, Nigerian women have a subordinate role to their male counterparts. There are twice as many women below the poverty line than men and up to 19 times as many men in executive positions than women.

The colonial roots of gender inequality refers to the political, educational, and economic inequalities between men and women in Africa. According to a Global Gender Gap Index report published in 2018, it would take 135 years to close the gender gap in Sub-Saharan Africa and nearly 153 years in North Africa. While much more is known about the effects of colonialism on all African people, less is known about the impacts of colonialism on specifically women. There are competing theories about the cause of gender inequality in Africa, but scholars suggest its genesis is in slavery and colonialism. For most women, colonialism resulted in an erosion of traditions and rights that formerly granted women equality and esteem. Women in pre-colonial Africa held positions of power and were influential in many aspects of their societies. This changed during the post-colonial period. With new forms of gender inequality introduced, many of the cultural underpinnings of African societies were eroded, and this harm has been challenging to mend. Theoretical frameworks that help to explain the colonial roots of gender inequality include coloniality of power and coloniality of gender. These decolonial concepts provide an account of how gender inequality became situated within the African context and help to explain why present-day inequalities, including women's political underrepresentation, remain significant challenges for Africa.

In this article, NGOs in West Africa will be divided into three categories: African national NGOs, African international NGOs, and non-African international NGOs. NGOs stand for non-governmental organizations. These organizations are mostly non-profit and mostly work independently from the government, they have specific aims that range from human rights, finance, health, education and more. There are many non-governmental organizations in West Africa, and much activity between these countries, organizations and the rest of the world.

References

  1. ↑ For a brief guide to the historiography see HIST 4310, Twentieth Century African Women's History by J. M. Chadya
  2. ↑ Hunt, Nancy Rose (October 1989). "Placing African women's history and locating gender". Social History. 14 (3): 359–379. doi:10.1080/03071028908567748.
  3. ↑ Hetherington, Penelope (1993). "Women in South Africa: The Historiography in English". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 26 (2): 241–269. doi:10.2307/219546. JSTOR   219546.
  4. ↑ Kathleen Sheldon, Historical dictionary of women in Sub-Saharan Africa (Scarecrow press, 2005).[ page needed ]
  5. ↑ Hay, Margaret Jean (10 March 2014). "Queens, Prostitutes and Peasants: Historical Perspectives on African Women, 1971–1986". Canadian Journal of African Studies. 22 (3): 431–447. doi:10.1080/00083968.1988.10804220. hdl: 2144/41085 . S2CID   142756533.
  6. ↑ Hunt, Nancy Rose; Liu, Tessie P.; Quataert, Jean (1997). Gendered Colonialisms in African History. Wiley. ISBN   978-0-631-20476-3.[ page needed ]
  7. ↑ Bolanle Awe, Nigerian women in historical perspective (IbDn: Sankore, 1992).[ page needed ]
  8. ↑ Eldredge, Elizabeth A. (1991). "Women in Production: The Economic Role of Women in Nineteenth-Century Lesotho". Signs. 16 (4): 707–731. doi:10.1086/494700. JSTOR   3174570. S2CID   145155005.
  9. ↑ Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, African Women: A Modern History (1997).[ page needed ]
  10. ↑ M.J. Hay and Sharon Stitcher, Women in Africa South Of the Sahara (1995).[ page needed ]
  11. ↑ Sheldon, Kathleen (1999). "Women's History: Africa". In Boyd, Kelly (ed.). Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing, vol 2. Taylor & Francis. pp. 1308–11. ISBN   9781884964336.
  12. 1 2 Mizrahi, Simon (May 2015). Empowering African Women: An Agenda for Action (PDF). Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire: African Development Bank. Retrieved 23 October 2019.
  13. 1 2 Musau, Zipporah (8 April 2019). "African Women in politics: Miles to go before parity is achieved". Africa Renewal. Retrieved 23 October 2019.
  14. ↑ Kimani, Mary (2007). "Taking on violence against women in Africa". Africa Renewal. 21 (2): 4–7. doi:10.18356/3a3ce9eb-en.
  15. ↑ "African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights". African Commission on Human and People's Rights. African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights.
  16. ↑ Solidarity for African Women's Rights (2006). Breathing Life into the African Union Protocol on Women's Rights in Africa. Solidarity for African Women's Rights.
  17. ↑ Mlambo-Ngcuka, Phumzile (29 January 2017). "Speech: "We have opportunities as much as we have challenges"". UN Women: Africa. UN Women. Retrieved 23 October 2019.
  18. ↑ Mutume, Gumisai (15 July 2005). "African women battle for equality". Africa Renewal. UN African Renewal. Retrieved 23 October 2019.
  19. ↑ Corner, Lorraine (1 February 2008). "Women's role in economic development". Research Gate.
  20. ↑ Presley, Cora Ann (20 May 2019). Kikuyu Women, the Mau Mau Rebellion, and Social Change in Kenya. doi:10.4324/9780429043697. ISBN   9780429043697. S2CID   241899004.
  21. ↑ Oyěwùmí, Oyèrónkẹ́ (1997). The invention of women making an African sense of Western gender discourses. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN   0816685908. OCLC   1108929499.
  22. ↑ "Women in Morocco". THIRDEYEMOM. 26 April 2011. Retrieved 9 November 2013.
  23. ↑ Cousins, Helen. "Conjugal Wrongs: Gender Violence in African Women's Literature" (PDF). Centre of West African Studies School of Historical Studies The University of Birmingham August 2001. Retrieved 2 March 2022. See also Margaret Busby (ed.), Daughters of Africa .
  24. ↑ "Education in Africa". uis.unesco.org. 18 November 2016. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
  25. 1 2 3 4 Hyde, Karin (1993). Women's Education in Developing Countries. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 112–113.
  26. ↑ Bledsoe, Caroline (1988). The Politics of Polygyny in Mende Education and Child Fosterage Transactions. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
  27. ↑ "Families and Populations" (PDF).
  28. ↑ Harding, Jan (1985). "Girls and Women in Secondary and Higher Education: Science for Only a Few". Prospects. 15 (4): 553–64. doi:10.1007/BF02197923. S2CID   143667607.
  29. ↑ Bloch, Marianne (1998). Women and Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Lynne Rienner Publishers.
  30. 1 2 "Literacy rate, adult female (% of females ages 15 and above) - Afghanistan, Zimbabwe, Algeria, Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Benin, Central African Republic, Somalia, Niger, Guinea, Sub-Saharan Africa | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
  31. 1 2 Martineau, Rowena (Autumn 1997). "Women and Education in South Africa: Factors Influencing Women's Educational Progress and Their Entry into Traditionally Male-Dominated Fields". The Journal of Negro Education. 66 (4): 383–395. doi:10.2307/2668166. JSTOR   2668166.
  32. ↑ Hafkin, Nancy Jane (1976). Edna G. Bay (ed.). Women in Africa: Studies in Social and Economic Change . Stanford University Press. p.  218. ISBN   978-0804710114.
  33. ↑ Fyle, C. Magbaily (2005). Historical Dictionary of Sierra Leone (New ed.). Scarecrow. p.  71. ISBN   978-0810853393.
  34. ↑ National identity and democracy in Africa. Palmberg, Mai., Human Sciences Research Council., University of the Western Cape. Mayibuye Centre. [Pretoria, S.A.]: Human Sciences Research Council of South Africa. 1999. p. 153. ISBN   978-0796919014. OCLC   43833733.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  35. 1 2 3 Roudi-Fahimi, Farzaneh; Valentine Moghadam (20 November 2003). "Empowering Women, Developing Society: Female Education in the Middle East and North Africa – Population Reference Bureau" . Retrieved 24 October 2019.
  36. 1 2 "Literacy rate, adult female (% of females ages 15 and above) - Middle East & North Africa, Egypt, Arab Rep., Morocco | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
  37. 1 2 3 Agnaou, Fatima (2004). Gender, Literacy, and Empowerment in Morocco. Routledge.
  38. 1 2 Lowe, Christian (6 August 2009). "Algeria's women police defy danger and stereotypes". Reuters. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
  39. ↑ Slackman, Michael (26 May 2007). "Algeria's quiet revolution: Gains by women". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
  40. ↑ Metz, Helen Chapin, ed. (2004). Libya. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 111–115. ISBN   978-1-4191-3012-0.
  41. ↑ Peter Malcolm, Elizabeth Losleben, Libya, Marshall Cavendish, 2004. ISBN   0-7614-1702-8, ISBN   978-0-7614-1702-6, pp. 73, 76, 78.
  42. ↑ "Islam and Women in Niger". The Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System. 4 September 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2013.
  43. ↑ Donati, Simone. Saharawi, Terra Project Photographers.
  44. ↑ "Human Rights Violations in Benin". ALTERNATIVE REPORT TO THE UNITED NATIONS COMMITTEE AGAINST TORTURE. Retrieved 11 January 2013.
  45. 1 2 PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .Alden Almquist (December 1993). Sandra W. Meditz; Tim Merrill (eds.). Zaire: A Country Study. Federal Research Division. The Status of Women.
  46. ↑ Wallace, Claire; Haerpfer, Christian; Abbott, Pamela (8 December 2014). "Women in Rwandan Politics and Society". International Journal of Sociology. 38 (4): 111–125. doi:10.2753/IJS0020-7659380406. S2CID   142994312.
  47. ↑ Bank, European Investment (2024-03-07). "EIB Gender equality and women's economic empowerment - Overview 2024".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  48. 1 2 3 4 5 Tartter, Jean R. "Status of Women". Indian Ocean country studies: Seychelles (Helen Chapin Metz, editor). Library of Congress Federal Research Division (August 1994). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  49. 1 2 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Seychelles (2007), Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (11 March 2008). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  50. ↑ Mabor, Beny Gideon. Women and Political Leadership in Africa: A demand In South Sudan transitional democracy, Sudan Tribune, 22 April 2013.
  51. 1 2 "Freedom in the World 2013: Democratic Breakthroughs in the Balance" (PDF). Freedom House. p. 17. Retrieved 13 April 2013.
  52. ↑ MDG, Report (2009). "Assessing Progress in Africa toward the Millennium Development Goals". Economic Commission for Africa.
  53. ↑ CEDAW. "Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination". United Nations.
  54. ↑ Human Development Report (2012). "The Rise of the South: Human Progress in a Diverse World". United Nations Development Programme.
  55. ↑ Uganda country study. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (December 1990). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  56. 1 2 Bandara, Amarakoon (3 April 2015). "The Economic Cost of Gender Gaps in Effective Labor: Africa's Missing Growth Reserve". Feminist Economics. 21 (2): 162–186. doi:10.1080/13545701.2014.986153. ISSN   1354-5701. S2CID   154698810.
  57. ↑ Oduro, Abena D.; van Staveren, Irene (3 July 2015). "Engendering Economic Policy in Africa" (PDF). Feminist Economics. 21 (3): 1–22. doi:10.1080/13545701.2015.1059467. hdl: 1765/79328 . ISSN   1354-5701. S2CID   153361566.
  58. ↑ Aterido, Reyes; Beck, Thorsten; Iacovone, Leonardo (July 2013). "Access to Finance in Sub-Saharan Africa: Is There a Gender Gap?" (PDF). World Development. 47: 102–120. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.02.013.
  59. ↑ "The State of Food and Agricultre: Women in Agricultre" (PDF). Food and Agriculture Organization.
  60. ↑ Tonda MacCharles (18 April 2010). "Senegal's women find a way out of poverty". Toronto Star. Retrieved 13 August 2011.
  61. ↑ "Lettre d'information UE-Djibouti n°5". Issuu. 31 January 2016. Retrieved 9 March 2020.
  62. ↑ "Africa's 10 iconic women leaders - This Is Africa". This Is Africa. 20 February 2015. Archived from the original on 11 December 2017. Retrieved 10 December 2017.
  63. ↑ "UNESCO Women in Africa History | Women". en.unesco.org. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
  64. ↑ "Our List of Top Influential African Women in 2018". ALU. 12 March 2019. Archived from the original on 22 June 2021. Retrieved 19 November 2019.
  65. ↑ "Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa" (PDF). African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 March 2022. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
  66. ↑ "Maputo Protocol". Wikisource. African Union. 11 July 2003. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
  67. ↑ "2010 Human Rights Report: Benin". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 11 January 2013.
  68. 1 2 Kevane, Michael (2004). Women and Development in Africa. Lynne Rienner Publishers.
  69. ↑ Bewley, Susan; Creighton, Sarah; Momoh, Comfort (2 June 2010). "Female genital mutilation". BMJ. 340 (jun02 2): c2728. doi:10.1136/bmj.c2728. ISSN   0959-8138. PMID   20519272. S2CID   8201426.
  70. ↑ Abate, Yohannis (1993). "The Role of Women". In Ofcansky, Thomas P.; Berry, LaVerle (eds.). A Country Study: Ethiopia. pp.  114–115. ISBN   0-8444-0739-9. LCCN   92000507.
  71. ↑ "Understanding and addressing violence against women" (PDF). World Health Organization.
  72. ↑ Abrahams, Naeemah; Mathews, Shanaaz; Martin, Lorna J.; Lombard, Carl; Jewkes, Rachel (2 April 2013). Mills, Edward J. (ed.). "Intimate Partner Femicide in South Africa in 1999 and 2009". PLOS Medicine. 10 (4): e1001412. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001412 . ISSN   1549-1676. PMC   3614499 . PMID   23565064.
  73. ↑ Abrahams, Naeemah; Jewkes, Rachel; Mathews, Shanaaz (7 September 2010). "Guns and gender-based violence in South Africa". South African Medical Journal. 100 (9): 586–8. doi: 10.7196/SAMJ.3904 . ISSN   2078-5135. PMID   20822647.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.