Women in Chad

Last updated

Women in Chad
Chadgirl.jpg
A Sara girl from Chad
General Statistics
Maternal mortality  (per 100,000)1,140 (2017) [1]
Women in parliament 12.8% (2012)
Women over 25 with secondary education NA
Women in labour force64.4% (2011)
Gender Inequality Index [2]
Value0.652 (2021)
Rank165th out of 191
Global Gender Gap Index [3]
Value0.579 (2022)
Rank142nd out of 146

Women in Chad, a landlocked country in Central Africa, are the mainstay of its predominantly rural-based economy and they outnumber the men. [4] Chad is a country with diverse and rich cultural practices, such as male beauty pageants (judged by women) and long-kept-secret hair products. [5] [6] Despite their numbers in the general population, there are very few women in governmental positions and gender equality is far from being a reality in Chad. Chad is rated by the World Bank as the third least gender equal country in Africa. [7] Additionally, there are few women who attain higher education, and many who receive a college degree do so outside of the country.

Contents

Women face discrimination and violence. Female genital mutilation, while technically illegal, is still widely practiced. [8] Child marriage and adolescent pregnancy are commonly practiced, although some policies have been implemented to combat them. Extrajudicial killings, beatings, torture, and rape were committed by security forces and other abuses with "near total" impunity. [9] [10] [11] Amnesty International has reported that "the widespread insecurity in eastern Chad had particularly severe consequences for women, who suffered grave human rights abuses, including rape, during attacks on villages" by Janjawid militia from Sudan. [11]

Mao Women Mao Women.jpg
Mao Women

Education

Despite government's efforts, overall educational levels remained low at the end of the first decade of independence. In 1971, about 99 percent of women over the age of fifteen could not read, write, or speak French, which at the time was the only official national language; literacy in Arabic stood at 7.8 percent. In 1982, the overall literacy rate stood at about 15 percent. [12]

Major problems have hindered the development of Chadian education since independence. Financing for education has been very limited. Limited facilities and personnel also have made it difficult for the education system to provide adequate instruction. Overcrowding is a major problem, with some classes having up to 100 students, many of whom are repeaters. In the years just after independence, many primary school teachers had only marginal qualifications. On the secondary level, the situation was even worse. [12]

In 2004, 39.6 percent of children aged 5 to 14 were attending school. Educational opportunities for girls are limited, mainly due to cultural traditions. Fewer girls enroll in secondary school than boys, primarily due to early marriage. In 1999, 54.0 percent of children who started primary school reached grade 5. [13]

Cultural Practices

There is a wide range of cultural traditions among the many ethnic groups within Chad.

Chebe

Chebe powder is a hair-care product used by rural women of the Basara Arab ethnic group in Chad. It is made from ground up natural herbs and ingredients, some of which are derived from plants unique to the region. [14] These Bassara Arab women use Chebe as a protective styling agent, and credit the product as the secret to their famously long and healthy hair. The ground-up powder is roasted then mixed with hair oil or animal fat. It is applied liberally to hair several times per month, to hydrate it. [5] The hair is then braided for further protection. The frequent Chebe application and hair-braiding is also a community bonding event for the women in these rural Basara groups. Some western beauty companies have used Chebe powder as a selling point in their hair-care products, but it is unclear whether or not these products contain genuine Chebe. [15]

African scarification circa 1943 African scarification circa 1943.jpg
African scarification circa 1943

Facial Scarring and Adornment

Facial scarring has been a common practice in Chad and the surrounding region for many decades. The nature of the scarring is extremely varied throughout the region, so there is no single style followed. [16] Some are opposed to facial scarring especially on children, as children are often scarred as infants. Much of the pushback has also stemmed from the AIDS epidemic, as some religious leaders have refused to use a fresh blade with each new client.

A now relatively out-dated practice in the Sara tribe was to wear decorative facial jewelry that stretched the lips and skin. [17]

Clothing

Traditional women's clothing styles in Chad can be separated into two general cultural categories: that of Muslim women and that of non-Muslim women. [18] Muslim women in Chad typically dress similarly to Muslim women around the globe. This consists of wearing robes that cover the body and a hijab and/or niqāb. A traditional style for Non-Muslim women is to wear a short-sleeved shirt, along with a pagne (or body wrap) which covers the upper and lower parts of the body, and decorative scarf called a lafai. Sandals are a common footwear worn by Chadian women.

By Dan Lundberg - 1997 #274-24 Gerewol, CC BY-SA 2.0 1997 274-24 Gerewol.jpg
By Dan Lundberg - 1997 #274-24 Gerewol, CC BY-SA 2.0

Pageants

Gerewol (var. Guerewol, Guérewol) is an annual cultural festival of the semi-nomadic Wodaabe people across Niger and Chad. [19] It takes place each year at the end of the rainy season in September. The festival is centered around a courtship ritual beauty pageant, but unlike traditional western pageants the competitors are male. The men adorn themselves in dramatic makeup and flashy garments to attract the attentions of female suitors, and the women are responsible for judging their beauty. [20] [21] [6]

Family Structure

Early Marriage

In Chad, the mean age of women at their first marriage is 16, but experts believe the median age is likely even lower. [22] [23] Traditionally, girls in Chad are seen as women once they reach reproductive age, and immediately become candidates for marriage to bachelors in their respective communities. According to the World Fertility Report in 2013, the average (mean) age of women in Chad at their first pregnancy was 18.2, but the median age for this figure is also expected to be somewhat lower. [22] [23] The structure of promoting marriage is perpetuated by religious organizations, as over 73% of the population is Catholic or Muslim. [24] The tradition of women marrying young, combined with a culture that promotes having large families with many children, has caused Chad's population to grow at an accelerated rate compared to developed countries with lower fertility rates. Despite being one of the poorest countries in the world (per capita), Chad has the 5th highest fertility/birth rate, at an average of 5.8 births per woman. [22]

Polygamy

Polygamy is legal in Chad, and it is estimated that over a third of women live in polygamous marriages. Men in Chad often take multiple wives in order to maximize the number of offspring they can produce, because having large families is seen as virtuous, in traditional culture. Ordinance No. 03/INT/SUR of 1961 states that polygamy is legal as long as "spouses do not renounce it when signing the marriage contract". [25] Knowledge about and access to contraceptives is scarce, which also contributes to high levels of poverty and child mortality, resulting from families' inability to provide for their children. Polygamy is, however, not limited to rural areas or remote communities; former President Idriss Déby publicly had multiple wives. [26] During his presidency, he married Hinda Déby Itno who eventually was designated as the First Lady out of his eight known wives. [26] [27]

Adolescent Pregnancy

Because girls are often married once they reach reproductive age in Chad, adolescent pregnancy is much more common than in other places. In Chad, the rate of childbirth for girls under the age of 15 is 47.8 out of 1,000, and nearly 14% of women in Chad have a child by this age. [24] In addition to the potential financial problems faced by young mothers in poor countries with high fertility rates, medical experts warn against the increased physical risks associated with adolescent pregnancy—especially in regions with limited access to healthcare such as rural Chad. [24]

Chad has a large number of nomadic and isolated communities which makes it much more difficult to ensure consistent healthcare access for all members of the population. [28] This problem is exacerbated by nation-wide financial troubles that forced the government to cut the per-capita healthcare spending by nearly 20% from 2014 to 2015. [29] Of the working healthcare facilities in Chad, only 18% are able to provide emergency neonatal and obstetric care (EmONC). [28]

In Nigeria—one of Chad's neighboring countries—the maternal mortality rate among adolescents (ages 15–19) is more than double the maternal mortality rate of adult mothers (ages 20–34). [30] Although it has decreased in recent years, Chad still has the second highest maternal mortality rate of any African country, topped on.ly by South Sudan. [31] According to the data collected by the World Bank in 2015, 54.7% of pregnant Chadian women were receiving prenatal care from a skilled health professional. This is a significant increase from 38.9% in 2004, but Chad is still far underperforming in this area as compared to neighboring countries of Niger, Sudan, and Libya which reported rates closer to 80 or 90 percent. [31]

It is difficult for women in Chad's rural communities to access healthcare and education regarding safe sex practices, as well as information on what proper prenatal care is needed during pregnancy. A weak education system is partially responsible for the lack of knowledge around contraceptives and women's healthcare practices in Chad, as very few women between the ages of 15 and 24 are literate. This age range is crucial to the discussion of contraception because traditionally, females in Chad are seen as women once they reach childbearing age (typically around 13–16 years old). [30]

Women's rights

Human trafficking

Chad is a source and destination country for children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically conditions of forced labor and forced prostitution. The country's trafficking problem is primarily internal and frequently involves parents entrusting children to relatives or intermediaries in return for promises of education, apprenticeship, goods, or money; selling or bartering children into involuntary domestic servitude or herding, as a means of survival by families seeking to reduce the number of mouths to feed. [32]

Underage Chadian girls travel to larger towns in search of work, where some are subsequently subjected to prostitution. Some girls are compelled to marry against their will, only to be forced by their husbands into involuntary domestic servitude or agricultural labor. In past reporting periods, traffickers transported children from Cameroon and the CAR to Chad's oil producing regions for commercial sexual exploitation; it is unknown whether this practice persisted in 2009. [32]

Female genital mutilation

60 percent of Chadian women had been subjected to female genital mutilation in 1995. The procedure is a traditional rite of passage as a girl moves into adulthood and it is followed regardless of religious orientation. It is equally common amongst Muslims, Christians and animists. Those who attain adulthood without being mutilated generally avoid it for life. [33] Over 80 percent of the girls in Chad who suffered genital mutilation were cut between the age of 5 and 14. [34]

Gender Gap Report

In 2012, the World Economic Forum ranked Chad as the third worst country on the continent for gender inequality in their Global Gender Gap Report, with an index score of 0.58 (1 is complete equality and 0 is complete inequality). [7]

Women in Politics

After President Idriss Déby was killed on April 20, 2021, there was a coup which led to the dismissal of the National Assembly. [35] [36] The ruling military junta is now responsible for the functions previously handled by the National Assembly. Prior to its dissolution, the National Assembly consisted of 188 members, 28 of whom were women.

When the military junta took power, they named 93 people who would act as the interim parliament—called the Conseil Militaire de Transition (CMT)—until the next election cycle. The members were chosen according to a list of quotas which required that at least 30% of members must come from the preceding National Assembly, 30% must be women, and 30% must be youths. [37] The list of all CMT members can be found at this link. [38]

The presence of quotas for women in government is a relatively new practice, and is part of a greater women's rights and gender equality movement that has grown in popularity over the last decade. [39] The goal of complete gender equality is still far from realized in Chad, and it is still rare to find women in highly influential positions in government. There is a deep cultural history around the woman's role as a mother, which has made the project of gender equality much more difficult to implement.

Historical Political Figures

See linked pages for more information.

Fatimé Kimto (died May 21, 2015) was a Chadian politician. She was the first woman to serve in a cabinet position in the country's history. She was first named to the cabinet in 1982, becoming the Minister of Social Affairs and Women; she remained in the post until 1984. Her last post was as the Minister of Civil Service, Labor, and Employment.

Achta Toné Gossingar (1 July 1941 – 23 November 2011) was the first female minister in the government of Idriss Déby; she went on to become a public health advocate, working in preventing death rates from AIDS and maternal death before her death in a plane crash in 2011.

Elise Loum (born 1956, Chad) was a vice-president of the African Union's Pan-African Parliament from 2004 to 2009.

Bourkou Louise Kabo (5 July 1934 – 13 June 2019) was a Chadian politician. She was the first woman to be elected to the National Assembly of Chad.

Kalthouma Nguembang was a Chadian politician, who was an early member of the Chadian Progressive Party (PPT). She was elected to the National Assembly of Chad in 1968, but was later imprisoned by François Tombalbaye who accused her of plotting against him.

Current/Recent Political Figures

See linked pages for more information.

Lydie Beaassemda (born c. 1967) is a Chadian politician. Since 2 May 2021, she has been Minister of Higher Education and Research under Chad's Transitional Military Council. She is also a leading member of the Party for Democracy and Full Independence (PDI), founded by her father, and she has headed the party since his death in 2018.

Amina Priscille Longoh (born 1991) is a Chadian humanitarian organizer and politician. She has served in the government of Chad as Minister of Women and the Protection of early childhood since July 2020. She is one of the main women's rights activists in Chad.

Hinda Déby Itno (born 5 April 1980) is a former Chadian First Lady who served from 2005 until the death of her husband, President Idriss Déby, in April 2021. She has been an advocate for ending the AIDS epidemic in Chad, and was named a UNAIDS "Special Ambassador" for the Prevention of HIV and the Protection and Health of Adolescents. [40]

Aziza Baroud (born August 4, 1965) is a Chadian politician who has served in various senior government positions such as Minister for Public Health & National Solidarity, and Minister for the Economy. Baroud has been the Permanent Representative to the United Nations since 2019, and is on the Religions for Peace Secretary General's Advisory Council. [41] In 1989, she received a master's degree in applied economics from the Université Paris Dauphine.

Laws, Policy, and Advocacy

Chad has signed and ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography. [42] [43] [44] [45]

External Aid

Several external organizations, including the UN, have offered their assistance to Chad in the spirit of improving equality and human rights. One example of this is the African Development Bank Group's project for Girls Education and Women's Literacy (PEFAF). [46]

Recent Policy

On March 14, 2015, the President of Chad launched a campaign to end child marriage by outlawing the forceful marriage of minors under the age of 18, making such a marriage punishable by 5–10 years in prison, along with major fines. [47] This decree has not completely ended child marriage, but it is a positive indication of the country's commitment to reduce harm against women and girls.

SENAFET

SENAFET stands for the Semaine Nationale des Femmes Tchadienne or in English, National Chadian Women's week. The theme of the 2022 SENAFET is “l’autonomisation de la femme tchadienne passe par son implication dans la vie politique, économique et sociale du pays,” which translates to “Giving the Chadian woman autonomy through her involvement in political, economic, and societal life in Chad." [48]

Goals of SENAFET:

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chad</span> Country in North-Central Africa

Chad, officially the Republic of Chad, is an independent state at the crossroads of North and Central Africa. The landlocked country is bordered by Libya to the north, Sudan to the east, the Central African Republic to the south, Cameroon to the southwest, Nigeria to the southwest, and Niger to the west. Chad has a population of 16 million, of which 1.6 million live in the capital and largest city of N'Djamena. With a total area of around 1,284,000 km2, Chad is the fifth-largest country in Africa and the twentieth largest nation by area in the world.

Child marriage is a marriage or domestic partnership, formal or informal, between a child and an adult, or between a child and another child.

Women's health differs from that of men's health in many unique ways. Women's health is an example of population health, where health is defined by the World Health Organisation as "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity". Often treated as simply women's reproductive health, many groups argue for a broader definition pertaining to the overall health of women, better expressed as "The health of women". These differences are further exacerbated in developing countries where women, whose health includes both their risks and experiences, are further disadvantaged.

Reproductive rights are legal rights and freedoms relating to reproduction and reproductive health that vary amongst countries around the world. The World Health Organization defines reproductive rights as follows:

Reproductive rights rest on the recognition of the basic right of all couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing and timing of their children and to have the information and means to do so, and the right to attain the highest standard of sexual and reproductive health. They also include the right of all to make decisions concerning reproduction free of discrimination, coercion and violence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Girl</span> Young female human

A girl is a young female human, usually a child or an adolescent. When a girl becomes an adult, she is generally referred to as a woman. However, the term girl is also used for other meanings, including young woman, and is sometimes used as a synonym for daughter or girlfriend regardless of age. In certain contexts, the usage of the term girl for an adult woman may be considered derogatory. Girl may also be a term of endearment used by an adult, usually a woman, to designate adult female friends. Girl also appears in compounds like showgirl, cowgirl, and schoolgirl.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual and reproductive health</span> State of the reproductive system without evidence of disease, disorders, or deficiencies

Sexual and reproductive health (SRH) is a field of research, health care, and social activism that explores the health of an individual's reproductive system and sexual well-being during all stages of their life. Sexual and reproductive health is more commonly defined as sexual and reproductive health and rights, to encompass individual agency to make choices about their sexual and reproductive lives.

Contributing to the establishment of human rights system in Africa are the United Nations, international law and the African Union which have positively influenced the betterment the human rights situation in the continent. However, extensive human rights abuses still occur in many sections of the continent. Most of the violations can be attributed to political instability, racial discrimination, corruption, post-colonialism, economic scarcity, ignorance, illness, religious bigotry, debt and bad financial management, monopoly of power, lack/absence of judicial and press autonomy, and border conflicts. Many of the provisions contained in regional, national, continental, and global agreements remained unaccomplished.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human rights in Chad</span>

Human rights in Chad have been described as "poor"; for example, Freedom House has designated the country as "Not Free." Chad received a score of 7 for political rights and 6 for civil liberties.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Ghana</span> Overview of the status of women in Ghana

The status of women in Ghana and their roles in Ghanaian society has changed over the past few decades. There has been a slow increase in the political participation of Ghanaian women throughout history. Women are given equal rights under the Constitution of Ghana, yet disparities in education, employment, and health for women remain prevalent. Additionally, women have much less access to resources than men in Ghana do. Ghanaian women in rural and urban areas face slightly different challenges. Throughout Ghana, female-headed households are increasing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Ethiopia</span> Overview of the status of women in Ethiopia

There have been several studies concerning women in Ethiopia. Historically, elite and powerful women in Ethiopia have been visible as administrators and warriors. This never translated into any benefit to improve the rights of women, but it had meant that women could inherit and own property and act as advisors on important communal and tribal matters. As late as the first part of the 20th century, Queen Menen, consort of Emperor Iyasu IV, had a decisive role in running the Ethiopian Empire. Workit and Mestayit regents to their minor sons have been held responsible for their provinces. They owed their rights to landed property because of a special type of land tenure that expected tenants to serve as militia to overlords, irrespective of gender. In 1896, Empress Tayetu Betul, wife of Emperor Menelik II, actively advised the government and participated in defending the country from Italian invasion. Prominent and other landowning women fought against the second invasion in 1935–41. With the assistance of European advisors, women in the ensuing period were kept out of the army and politics, even as advisors. Instead, they were restricted to family and household work of raising children and cooking. With a steady increase in female representation in education, they have started to undertake nursing, teaching, and other similarly supportive roles. Over the 2018–2019 period, their gradual participation in state politics has been increasing at a steady pace.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in the Democratic Republic of the Congo</span> Overview of the status of women in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Women in the Democratic Republic of the Congo have not attained a position of full equality with men, with their struggle continuing to this day. Although the Mobutu regime paid lip service to the important role of women in society, and although women enjoy some legal rights, custom and legal constraints still limit their opportunities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Nigeria</span> Overview of the status of women in Nigeria

Women in Nigeria are a diverse group of individuals who have a wide range of experiences and backgrounds. They are mothers, daughters, sisters, wives, entrepreneurs, professionals, and activists. Women in Nigeria face numerous challenges, including gender inequality, poverty, and a lack of access to education and healthcare. Despite these challenges, Nigerian women are making strides in all areas of life and are becoming increasingly empowered to take control of their lives and their futures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Mali</span> Overview of the status of women in Mali

The status and social roles of women in Mali have been formed by the complex interplay of a variety of traditions in ethnic communities, the rise and fall of the great Sahelien states, French colonial rule, independence, urbanisation, and postcolonial conflict and progress. Forming just less than half Mali's population, Malian women have sometimes been the center of matrilineal societies, but have always been crucial to the economic and social structure of this largely rural, agricultural society.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Birth control in Africa</span>

Access to safe and adequate sexual and reproductive healthcare constitutes part of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as upheld by the United Nations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Sudan</span> Overview of the status of women in Sudan

Sudan is a developing nation that faces many challenges in regard to gender inequality. Freedom House gave Sudan the lowest possible ranking among repressive regimes during 2012. South Sudan received a slightly higher rating but it was also rated as "not free". In the 2013 report of 2012 data, Sudan ranks 171st out of 186 countries on the Human Development Index (HDI). Sudan also is one of very few countries that are not a signatory on the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Niger</span> Overview of the status of women in Niger

Women in Niger are women that are from or live in the West African country of Niger. These women belong to a population in which 98% are practitioners of Islam. Laws adopted by the government of Niger to protect the rights of Nigerien women are most often based on Muslim beliefs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Africa</span> Overview of the status of women in Africa

The culture, evolution, and history of women who were born in, live in, and are from the continent of Africa reflect the evolution and history of the African continent itself.

Traditional gender roles in Egypt are prevalent and clearly defined. These roles are largely associated with traditional Islamic family structures, wherein women's roles are closely tied to the domestic sphere and men's roles tied to the public sphere. Gender roles are based on assumed biological differences between the sexes and can lead to dramatically different life experiences as well as opportunities and outcomes for individuals. Consequently, when looking at a number of indicators, women often find themselves disadvantaged relative to men.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Zambia</span> Overview of the status of women in Zambia

The status of women in Zambia has improved in recent years. Among other things, the maternal mortality rate has dropped and the National Assembly of Zambia has enacted multiple policies aimed at decreasing violence against women. However, progress is still needed. Most women have limited access to reproductive healthcare, and the total number of women infected with HIV in the country continues to rise. Moreover, violence against women in Zambia remains common. Child marriage rates in Zambia are some of the highest in the world, and women continue to experience high levels of physical and sexual violence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on female education</span> COVID-19 impact on education of females

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a considerable impact on female education. Female education relates to the unequal social norms and the specific forms of discrimination that girls face. In 2018, 130 million girls worldwide were out of school, and only two out of three girls were enrolled in secondary education. The COVID-19 pandemic may further widen the gaps and threatens to disrupt the education of more than 11 million girls. In addition, girls are less likely to have access to the Internet and online learning.

References

  1. ↑ "Maternal Mortality Ratio". UNICEF.
  2. ↑ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORTS. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
  3. ↑ "Global Gender Gap Report 2022" (PDF). World Economic Forum. Retrieved 6 March 2023.
  4. ↑ "Rural Poverty in Chad". Rural poverty portal. International fund for agricultural development. Retrieved 11 November 2012.
  5. 1 2 Long natural hair secret from Chad in Africa : CHEBE POWDER , retrieved 29 April 2022
  6. 1 2 "Chad's all-male beauty pageant: the Gerewol festival". CN Traveller. 18 October 2016. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  7. 1 2 "Gender gap index in Sub-Saharan Africa 2021". Statista. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  8. ↑ Chad (2007) Freedom House. Retrieved 4 September 2007.
  9. ↑ "Chad" Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2006. United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 September 2007.
  10. ↑ Chad: Events of 2006 Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 4 September 2007.
  11. 1 2 Annual Report: Chad Amnesty International. Retrieved 4 September 2007.
  12. 1 2 Chad country study. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  13. ↑ "Chad". 2005 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor Archived 1 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine . Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor (2006). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  14. ↑ "How the Nomadic Women of Chad Are Keeping the Ancient Hair-Care Ritual of Chébé Alive". Vogue. 8 March 2022. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
  15. ↑ Segal, Lindy (10 August 2021). "What Is Chebe Powder, and Can it Really Help With Hair Growth?". Harper's BAZAAR. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
  16. ↑ Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld | Chad: Facial tribal markings, particularly for the Gorane and Zaghawa peoples". Refworld. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
  17. ↑ "What is the Style of Dress in Chad, Africa?". Travel Tips - USA Today. Retrieved 5 April 2022.
  18. ↑ Ebby (6 August 2020). "THE CLOTHING OF THE REPUBLIC OF CHAD". Inspiration with Lois| Lifestyle | Nigeria. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  19. ↑ "Gerewol Festival in Chad". www.responsiblevacation.com. Retrieved 5 April 2022.
  20. ↑ "The Gerewol Festival". Native Eye Travel. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  21. ↑ @NatGeoUK (18 October 2016). "Chad: African beauty". National Geographic. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  22. 1 2 3 "Total Fertility Rate 2022". worldpopulationreview.com. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  23. 1 2 United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2013). World Fertility Report (Report). United Nations publication. p. Table A.1. Retrieved 01 April 2022.
  24. 1 2 3 Danawi, Hadi (2016). "Maternal Mortality in Chad". International Journal of Childbirth Education. 31 (2). Minneapolis: 21–25 – via Research Gate.
  25. ↑ "Social Institutions & Gender Index" (PDF). OECD. 2019 – via Gender, Institutions, and Development Database.
  26. 1 2 van Wyk, Jo-Ansie; Nyere, Chidochashe; Muresan, Arina (2018). "African First Ladies, Politics and the State". Politeia. 37 (2). University of South Africa Press.
  27. ↑ "Idriss Déby obituary". the Guardian. 13 May 2021. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  28. 1 2 "Health". www.unicef.org. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  29. ↑ "Chad Healthcare Spending 2000-2022". www.macrotrends.net. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  30. 1 2 "Adolescent pregnancy – Unmet needs and undone deeds" (PDF). WHO Discussion Papers on Adolescence. 2007 – via World Health Organization.
  31. 1 2 "Pregnant women receiving prenatal care (%) - Chad | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  32. 1 2 "Chad". Trafficking in Persons Report 2010. U.S. Department of State (14 June 2010). PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  33. ↑ "Chad: Report on Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) or Female Genital Cutting (FGC)" (PDF). US Department of State. 1 June 2001. Retrieved 10 November 2012.
  34. ↑ Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A statistical overview and exploration of the dynamics of change (PDF). New York: UNICEF. 2013., 47, 183.
  35. ↑ "Chad's ruling junta appoints transitional government". Africanews. 3 May 2021. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  36. ↑ "Chad - Finance and trade | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  37. ↑ "Chad: Mahamat Idriss Déby appoints a transitional parliament by decree". The Africa Report.com. 29 September 2021. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  38. ↑ APANEWS. "Chad's Military Council forms transitional government". apanews.net. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  39. ↑ "Easing fears and promoting gender equality in Chad's girls-only classrooms". UN News. 28 February 2019. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  40. ↑ "First Lady of Chad Hinda Deby Itno, UNAIDS Special Ambassador for the Prevention of HIV and the Protection and Health of Adolescents". www.unaids.org. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  41. ↑ "Ambassador Ammo Aziza Baroud". Religions for Peace. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  42. ↑ United Nations. "United Nations Treaty Collection: Chapter IV: Human Rights: 8. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. New York, 18 December 1979". Archived from the original on 23 August 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2012.
  43. ↑ United Nations. "United Nations Treaty Collection: Chapter IV: Human Rights: 9. Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. New York, 10 December 1984". Archived from the original on 8 November 2010. Retrieved 29 August 2012.
  44. ↑ United Nations. "United Nations Treaty Collection: Chapter IV: Human Rights: 11. Convention on the Rights of the Child. New York, 20 November 1989". Archived from the original on 11 February 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2012.
  45. ↑ United Nations. "United Nations Treaty Collection: Chapter IV: Human Rights: 11c. Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography. New York, 25 May 2000" . Retrieved 29 August 2012.
  46. ↑ "Chad - Girls' Education and Women's Literacy Project (PEFAF) - Appraisal Report". African Development Bank - Building today, a better Africa tomorrow. 8 January 2021. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  47. ↑ "Chad: National Campaign to End Child Marriage Takes off - Chad". ReliefWeb. 25 March 2015. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  48. ↑ "Tchad : lancement officiel de la Semaine nationale de la femme édition 2022". Tchadinfos.com (in French). 1 March 2022. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.