Women in Cambodia, due to the influence of the dominant Khmer culture, are traditionally expected to be modest and soft-spoken. They are to be well-mannered,[3] industrious,[4] and hold a sense of belonging to the household. It is expected that they act as the family's caregivers and caretakers,[3] financial administrators,[4] and serve as the "preserver of the home". As financial administrators, women can be identified as having household authority at the familial level.[5] Khmer women are expected to maintain virginity until marriage, become faithful wives,[3] and act as advisors to their husbands.[4] Women in Cambodia have also be known as “light” walkers-- "light" walking and refinement of the Khmer women is further described as being "quiet in […] movements that one cannot hear the sound of their silk skirt rustling".[4]
In recent years, women have become more active in the traditionally male-dominated spheres of work and politics in Cambodia.
History
During the old Kingdom of Cambodia, there were few options for a woman leave the social class she was born in but to become a member of the royal harem, to which women were sent as gifts to the king in order to become concubines and other royal attendants until it was closed in 1904.[6]
During the French colonial period, the change in women's position was largely superficial and restricted to the elite. The school system were largely restricted to males and the écoles franco-cambodgiennes and Manufacture Royale au Palais for girls only offered an education to domestics or manufacturer of tourist objects, and only a small minority upper-class women had access to higher education at the Collège Sisowath (Lycée Sisowath) and from there to university abroad, foremost in Saigon.[6]
The organized women's movement in Cambodia started with the foundation of the Cambodian Women's Association in 1949, which supported the expansion of women's rights and opportunities by supporting the moderate state feminism during the late colonial and early independence years of Cambodia, when women where formally granted access to education, professional life, suffrage and appointed to political posts for the first time.[6]
Work
In the wake of the Cambodian Civil War, Cambodia suffered a deficit in male laborers. As a result, the women took on the responsibilities previously done by men.[4] Under Cambodian law, women are entitled to "equal pay for equal work". However, in reality, most women receive lower wages than their male counterparts.[4] During the 1990s, many "uneducated young women" from rural areas ventured into the city to work in garment factories.[4]
In 2004, the organization, Gender and Development for Cambodia, stated that 6% of the female workforce in Cambodia is paid.[7] According to a World Bank report[citation needed] labor force participation for women in Cambodia is lower than that of their male counterparts, with 69.9% of women working and 82.1% of men working.
Khmer women are often active in worshipping at Buddhist temples and participating in religious ceremonies—particularly during the thngai sil (Khmer: ថ្ងៃសីល; English for "holy days"). Some women not only participate as worshippers, but become Buddhist nuns (យាយជីyeay chi)-- particularly the widowed and the elderly.
In recent years, Buddhism has also been examined in conjunction with a feminist school of thought to navigate issues of domestic violence that impact women. In Buddhism as in international law, people must intervene when a man has criminally attacked his wife, despite some alluding to a ‘cultural defense’ of the perpetrator. Recent developments have included the idea of monks carrying out preventative work by educating communities on non-violence using the precepts of morality in the dharma, disabusing culprits of their sense of entitlement and impunity.[8]
13.8% of Cambodian women were reported as being illiterate in 2019. In 2004, it was reported that only 16% of the girls in Cambodia were enrolled in lower secondary schools.[7] Girls in Cambodia lack access to education due to gender role expectations and other socio-economic realities. According to a World Bank Report[citation needed], 63% of girls and 52.5% of boys complete secondary school in Cambodia. Girls in Cambodia are needed at home to take care of younger siblings, perform household duties, and support the head of the home. Other factors include extreme poverty, the distance between home and school, as well as an ever-present fear for personal safety while traveling alone.[4]
However, despite these low statistics, there is a growing number of women present in Cambodia's universities. As of 2004, 20% of university graduates were women.[7]
Funded by Google.org, the philanthropic arm of Google, SHE Investments and Youth Business International (YBI) created an initiative to help underserved female business owners recover from the COVID-19 pandemic. Through this program, women learn about digital literacy, crisis management, financial management, and business model adaption. As of September 2021, 94 out of 97 women graduated and said they would recommend the program to others. In addition, 78 businesses remained operational at the end of the program. Monthly revenue of the participants increased by 169 percent. A total of 584 jobs were either retained, re-hired, or newly created.[9]
Political status
From the 1980s to present day, the number of female participants in Cambodian politics has remained low. They are under-represented in high-level positions at both the local and national levels of the government.[4] A case study in 2013[citation needed] found that young women in Cambodia generally had one of three perceptions of politics; those aged 14–18 generally did not have opinions or thoughts on politics, or did not know what the word meant. Young women from ages 20–35 who were garment factory workers or had a higher level of education generally thought politics was related to issues such as “law, resources, the national minimum wage, employment, land and services.” Garment factory workers, who are predominantly female and make up the labour force of the country's largest industry, have a history of being involved in politics in Cambodia. Examples include the 2013–2014 Cambodian protests. Women who did not fall into one of these two categories were generally distrustful of “politics,” and associated it with money, corruption, and male domination.[10]
Since 1993, there has been a modest rise in the participation of Cambodian women including leadership in non-governmental organizations focusing on the issues and rights of women.[4] It was reported in 2004 that 10% of National Assembly members, 8% of Commune Council members, and 7% of Cambodian judges were women.[7]
The Cambodian Government has committed to further increasing female representation in politics. The Cambodian Millennium Development Goals (CMDGs) set a target of 25 percent of women's representation at the Commune/Sangkat Council level and 30 percent of female representatives in the National Assembly and Senate by 2015.[11] However, women are often elected to meet the government quota, but are placed in figurehead roles that lack transformative power. Parties will often list female candidates at the bottom of the ballot so that their party technically has female representation, but these candidates are not likely to be elected.[12] The number of women in the National Assembly also decreased after the July 2013 elections, and women were among members of the Cambodia National Rescue Party who were banned from politics or exiled in 2017.
Legal status
Throughout the nation's history and within national legislation, men and women in Cambodia have always had equal rights.[4] This equality is also stated in the Constitution of Cambodia.[4] Cambodian women benefit from inheritance laws. These laws mean that they can own property, "bring property into a marriage", and claim the property as their own if they choose to do so. Women in Cambodia can also easily obtain a divorce.[4] In 2005, Cambodia outlawed marital rape.[13]
Prostitution in Cambodia encompasses local women,[4]women from Vietnam,[14] and is being linked to the sex trade in nearby Thailand. As a result of this widespread prostitution, approximately 2.8% of Cambodia's population are infected with HIV/AIDS.[4]
Women and girls in Cambodia are trafficked both domestically and throughout the world.[15] In many cases, they are threatened and forced into prostitution, marriages, and even pregnancies.[16]
Reproductive Health
Cambodia has taken steps to improve reproductive and sexual health, such as introducing the Birth Spacing Policy in 1995 and the Abortion Law in 1997. However, access to contraception remains limited in rural areas. The Ministry of Health has implemented the National Strategy for Reproductive and Sexual Health (2017-2020) to improve the reproductive and sexual health of the population. However, a 2019 investigation by the World Health Organization revealed that only one-third of Cambodian villages had active distributors of contraceptives, such as birth control pills and condoms.[17] According to a report from the World Bank[citation needed], 160 women die per 100,000 live births due to pregnancy-related causes in Cambodia. The mortality ratio has decreased in recent years from 488 in 2000 to 160 in 2017.
Especially in rural communities, Cambodian women are not only susceptible to domestic violence, but also have "little legal recourse". [5] Due to limited education, many Cambodian women are unable to protect themselves from discrimination, gender inequality, violence, and abuse. They live unaware of their legal rights and/or global human rights standards.[7]
In 2004, Gender and Development for Cambodia reported that "23% of women have suffered physical domestic abuse".[7] A 2013 survey found that 32.8% of men reported perpetrating physical and/or sexual violence against an intimate partner, and one in five men reported raping a woman or girl. Government rhetoric often blames alcohol and poverty, but local activists argue this approach is ineffective.[18] Attempts to address gender-based violence have been complicated by the effects of globalization, including economic development resulting in women flocking to the cities in search of work, which activists state has caused more economic abuse and violence. Simultaneously, the heightened awareness due to global women's rights movements has made the movement to counter gender-based violence more widespread in Cambodian society, and the world as a whole.[19]
There are also issues with legislation related to preventing assault. The Cambodian Criminal Code (2010) defines rape restrictively and incompletely, and while marital rape was outlawed in 2005, some Members of Parliament argued that sexual intercourse is an obligation in a marriage. Local activists argue for the transformation of patriarchal norms and an emphasis on championing women's rights without locating gender-based violence in an unchanging culture. They argue that this creates untrue stereotypes of Khmer culture—gender-based violence is rooted in patriarchal norms, and should not be presented as an unchangeable cultural norm.[18] The National Action Plans to Prevent Violence Against Women (2014-2018 and 2019–2023) have tried to combine approaches, including analyzing norms among men and educating people to stop using a "cultural defense" of the perpetrator perpetuated by men. However, patriarchal views on marriage remain prevalent, hampering the implementation of legal protections for women, especially those in rural areas and members of the LGBTQIA+ community.
Of late, there has been much discussion over the roles of Cambodian women in the society of today. What Cambodian tradition tell us about their daily roles is being revisited. In order to reach gender equity, gender norms need to reflect the present era in regard to leadership roles. Some would say that elevating a woman's worth from the traditional representations of women in Khmer culture and stating that a woman is not second to a man,[20] would help to make Cambodian women their own agents.
In recent years, young women in Cambodia have been influenced by Western ideas which are contrary to traditional Cambodian culture. One example, found particularly in the capital of Phnom Penh, is that young female Cambodians are overtly consuming liquors and other alcoholic beverages in restaurants. Other areas in which Western influence is detected include a sense of equal rights between men and women, peer pressure, companionship, experimentation, trouble within the family, abandonment by a boyfriend, and through advertising.[21]
Women's rights are the rights and entitlements claimed for women and girls worldwide. They formed the basis for the women's rights movement in the 19th century and the feminist movements during the 20th and 21st centuries. In some countries, these rights are institutionalized or supported by law, local custom, and behavior, whereas in others, they are ignored and suppressed. They differ from broader notions of human rights through claims of an inherent historical and traditional bias against the exercise of rights by women and girls, in favor of men and boys.
Reproductive rights are legal rights and freedoms relating to reproduction and reproductive health that vary amongst countries around the world. The World Health Organization defines reproductive rights as follows:
Reproductive rights rest on the recognition of the basic right of all couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing and timing of their children and to have the information and means to do so, and the right to attain the highest standard of sexual and reproductive health. They also include the right of all to make decisions concerning reproduction free of discrimination, coercion and violence.
Gender equality, also known as sexual equality or equality of the sexes, is the state of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities regardless of gender, including economic participation and decision-making; and the state of valuing different behaviors, aspirations and needs equally, regardless of gender.
Violence against women (VAW), also known as gender-based violence and sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV), is violent acts primarily or exclusively committed by men or boys against women or girls. Such violence is often considered a form of hate crime, committed against women or girls specifically because they are female, and can take many forms.
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in Cambodia face legal challenges not experienced by non-LGBT residents. Although same-sex sexual activity is legal in Cambodia, it provides no anti-discrimination protections for LGBT people, nor does it prohibit hate crimes based on sexual orientation and gender identity.
The status of women in Ghana and their roles in Ghanaian society has changed over the past few decades. There has been a slow increase in the political participation of Ghanaian women throughout history. Women are given equal rights under the Constitution of Ghana, yet disparities in education, employment, and health for women remain prevalent. Additionally, women have much less access to resources than men in Ghana do. Ghanaian women in rural and urban areas face slightly different challenges. Throughout Ghana, female-headed households are increasing.
Women in Nigeria are a diverse group of individuals who have a wide range of experiences and backgrounds. They are mothers, daughters, sisters, wives, entrepreneurs, professionals, and activists. Women in Nigeria face numerous challenges, including gender inequality, poverty, and a lack of access to education and healthcare. Despite these challenges, Nigerian women are making strides in all areas of life and are becoming increasingly empowered to take control of their lives and their futures.
Women in Uganda have substantial economic and social responsibilities throughout Uganda's many traditional societies. Ugandan women come from a range of economic and educational backgrounds. Despite economic and social progress throughout the country, domestic violence and sexual assault remain prevalent issues in Uganda. Illiteracy is directly correlated to increased level of domestic violence. This is mainly because household members can not make proper decisions that directly affect their future plans. Government reports suggest rising levels of domestic violence toward women that are directly attributable to poverty.
As sexual violence affects all parts of society, the responses that arise to combat it are comprehensive, taking place on the individual, administrative, legal, and social levels.
Gender inequality in India refers to health, education, economic and political inequalities between men and women in India. Various international gender inequality indices rank India differently on each of these factors, as well as on a composite basis, and these indices are controversial.
Women in Yemen have historically been placed at a disadvantage due to their gender, with a highly patriarchal society. Although the government of Yemen has made efforts that will improve the rights of women in Yemen, many cultural and religious norms, along with poor enforcement of this legislation from the Yemeni government, have prevented Yemeni women from having equal rights to men.
The extent of gender inequalities varies throughout Liberia in regard to status, region, rural/urban areas, and traditional cultures. In general, women in Liberia have less access to education, health care, property, and justice when compared to men. Liberia suffered two devastating civil wars from 1989–1996 and 1999–2003. The wars left Liberia nearly destroyed with minimal infrastructure and thousands dead. Liberia has a Human Development Report ranking of 174 out of 187 and a Gender Inequality Index rank of 154 out of 159.
Gender inequality in Honduras has seen improvements in some areas regarding gender inequality, while others have regressed towards further inequality since in 1980s. Comparing numbers from the 2011 and 2019 United Nations Human Development Reports helps to understand how gender inequality has been trending in Honduras. In the 2011 Human Development Report rankings for the Gender Inequality Index, Honduras ranked 121st out of 187 countries. In the 2019 Human Development Report Honduras dropped to 132nd out of 189 countries in the rankings. As the country's overall ranking dropped, it indicates that progress towards gender equality is not being made on the same level as other countries around the world.
Women in South Sudan are women who live in and are from South Sudan. Since the Independence of South Sudan on 9 July 2011, these women have gained more power but still face issues of inequality. Many women in this area do not have adequate access to health resources and education. While these women often face inequality, there has been progress since South Sudan's official declaration of independence. In recent years, this inequality has gained national attention and people have become more interested in the issue of child marriage that this area faces. Along with this, there has started to be a focus on the very high level of maternal mortality in South Sudan. With a maternal mortality rate of 789 deaths per 100,000 live births, South Sudan has one of the highest rates in the world.
Women in Trinidad and Tobago are women who were born in, who live in, or are from Trinidad and Tobago. Depending from which island the women came, they may also be called Trinidadian women or Tobagonian women respectively. Women in Trinidad and Tobago excel in various industries and occupations, including micro-enterprise owners, "lawyers, judges, politicians, civil servants, journalists, and calypsonians." Women still dominate the fields of "domestic service, sales, and some light manufacturing."
Gender inequality has been improving a lot in Bangladesh, inequalities in areas such as education and employment remain ongoing problems so women have little political freedom. In 2015, Bangladesh was ranked 139 out of 187 countries on the Human Development Index and 47 out 144 countries surveyed on the Gender Inequality Index in 2017. Many of the inequalities are result of extreme poverty and traditional gender norms centred on a patrilineal and patriarchal kinship system in rural areas.
Gender inequality in Sri Lanka is centered on the inequalities that arise between men and women in Sri Lanka. Specifically, these inequalities affect many aspects of women's lives, starting with sex-selective abortions and male preferences, then education and schooling in childhood, which influence job opportunities, property rights, access to health and political participation in adulthood. While Sri Lanka is ranked well on several gender equality indices in comparison to other countries in the region, there are also some sources that question the verity of these indices. However, globally, Sri Lanka ranks relatively lower on gender equality indices. Overall, this pattern of social history that disempowers females produces a cycle of undervaluing females, providing only secondary access to health care and schooling and thus fewer opportunities to take on high level jobs or training, which then exacerbates the issue of low political participation and lowered social rights, a cycle studied and noted on by Dr. Elaine Enarson, a disaster sociologist studying the connection between disaster and the role of women.
As of 2018, the African country Rwanda ranks in the top five countries for gender equality according to the Global Gender Gap Report. The idea of fairness that dominates this country arose after the genocide against the Tutsi that occurred in 1994. The government is committed to ensuring equal rights for women and men without prejudice to the principles of gender equality and complementarity in national development. These ideas are exhibited through the roles of Rwanda women in government, the respect for women's education and the role of women in Rwanda healthcare. The country also took an active stance against rape in genocide, created a national action plan after United Nations Resolution 1325, and is pushing towards ending gender-based violence.
Gender inequality in Nepal refers to disparities and inequalities between men and women in Nepal, a landlocked country in South Asia. Gender inequality is defined as unequal treatment and opportunities due to perceived differences based solely on issues of gender. Gender inequality is a major barrier for human development worldwide as gender is a determinant for the basis of discrimination in various spheres such as health, education, political representation, and labor markets. Although Nepal is modernizing and gender roles are changing, the traditionally patriarchal society creates systematic barriers to gender equality.
Sustainable Development Goal 5 concerns gender equality and is fifth of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by United Nations in 2015. The 17 SDGs recognize that action in one area will affect outcomes in others, and that development must balance social, economic and environmental sustainability.
↑ Eisenbruch, M. Violence Against Women in Cambodia: Towards a Culturally Responsive Theory of Change. Cult Med Psychiatry 42, 350–370 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11013-017-9564-5
1 2 Eisenbruch M. The Cultural Epigenesis of Gender-Based Violence in Cambodia: Local and Buddhist Perspectives. Cult Med Psychiatry. 2018 Jun;42(2):315-349. doi: 10.1007/s11013-017-9563-6. PMID 29340954; PMCID: PMC5976692.
↑ Fulu, E., & Miedema, S. (2015). Violence Against Women: Globalizing the Integrated Ecological Model. Violence Against Women, 21(12), 1431–1455. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801215596244
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