Islamic geometric patterns

Last updated

Samarkand Bibi Khanum Mosque Minaret Detail.JPG
Detail of minaret socle of the Bibi Khanum Mosque, Samarkand, Uzbekistan.The arched vertical panels are decorated with different geometric patterns, featuring 10-, 8- and 5-pointed stars.
Doorway in Ben Youssef Madrasa.JPG
A doorway in Ben Youssef Madrasa, Marrakech. The Atlas cedar doors have carved strapwork with a 16-point star. The arch is surrounded with arabesques; to either side is a band of Islamic calligraphy, above zellij tilework.

Islamic geometric patterns are one of the major forms of Islamic ornament, which tends to avoid using figurative images, as it is forbidden to create a representation of an important Islamic figure according to many holy scriptures.

Contents

The geometric designs in Islamic art are often built on combinations of repeated squares and circles, which may be overlapped and interlaced, as can arabesques (with which they are often combined), to form intricate and complex patterns, including a wide variety of tessellations. These may constitute the entire decoration, may form a framework for floral or calligraphic embellishments, or may retreat into the background around other motifs. The complexity and variety of patterns used evolved from simple stars and lozenges in the ninth century, through a variety of 6- to 13-point patterns by the 13th century, and finally to include also 14- and 16-point stars in the sixteenth century.

Geometric patterns occur in a variety of forms in Islamic art and architecture. These include kilim carpets, Persian girih and Moroccan zellij tilework, muqarnas decorative vaulting, jali pierced stone screens, ceramics, leather, stained glass, woodwork, and metalwork.

Interest in Islamic geometric patterns is increasing in the West, both among craftsmen and artists like M. C. Escher in the twentieth century, and among mathematicians and physicists such as Peter J. Lu and Paul Steinhardt.

Background

Islamic decoration

Islamic geometric patterns are derived from simpler designs used in earlier cultures: Greek, Roman, and Sasanian. They are one of three forms of Islamic decoration, the others being the arabesque based on curving and branching plant forms, and Islamic calligraphy; all three are frequently used together. [1] [2] From the 9th century onward, a range of sophisticated geometric patterns based on polygonal tessellation began to appear in Islamic art, eventually becoming dominant. [3]

Islamic art mostly avoids figurative images to avoid becoming objects of worship. [4] [5] This aniconism in Islamic culture caused artists to explore non-figural art, and created a general aesthetic shift toward mathematically based decoration. [6]

Purpose

Authors such as Keith Critchlow [lower-alpha 1] argue that Islamic patterns are created to lead the viewer to an understanding of the underlying reality, rather than being mere decoration, as writers interested only in pattern sometimes imply. [7] [8] In Islamic culture, the patterns are believed to be the bridge to the spiritual realm, the instrument to purify the mind and the soul. [9] David Wade [lower-alpha 2] states that "Much of the art of Islam, whether in architecture, ceramics, textiles or books, is the art of decoration – which is to say, of transformation." [10] Wade argues that the aim is to transfigure, turning mosques "into lightness and pattern", while "the decorated pages of a Qur’an can become windows onto the infinite." [10] Against this, Doris Behrens-Abouseif [lower-alpha 3] states in her book Beauty in Arabic Culture that a "major difference" between the philosophical thinking of Medieval Europe and the Islamic world is exactly that the concepts of the good and the beautiful are separated in Arabic culture. She argues that beauty, whether in poetry or in the visual arts, was enjoyed "for its own sake, without commitment to religious or moral criteria". [11]

Pattern formation

The Shah Nematollah Vali Shrine, Mahan, Iran, 1431. The blue girih-tiled dome contains stars with, from the top, 5, 7, 9, 12, 11, 9 and 10 points in turn. 11-point stars are rare in Islamic art. Shah Nematollah Vali Shrine 08.jpg
The Shah Nematollah Vali Shrine, Mahan, Iran, 1431. The blue girih-tiled dome contains stars with, from the top, 5, 7, 9, 12, 11, 9 and 10 points in turn. 11-point stars are rare in Islamic art.

Many Islamic designs are built on squares and circles, typically repeated, overlapped and interlaced to form intricate and complex patterns. [1] A recurring motif is the 8-pointed star, often seen in Islamic tilework; it is made of two squares, one rotated 45 degrees with respect to the other. The fourth basic shape is the polygon, including pentagons and octagons. All of these can be combined and reworked to form complicated patterns with a variety of symmetries including reflections and rotations. Such patterns can be seen as mathematical tessellations, which can extend indefinitely and thus suggest infinity. [1] [13] They are constructed on grids that require only ruler and compass to draw. [14] Artist and educator Roman Verostko argues that such constructions are in effect algorithms, making Islamic geometric patterns forerunners of modern algorithmic art. [15]

The circle symbolizes unity and diversity in nature, and many Islamic patterns are drawn starting with a circle. [16] For example, the decoration of the 15th-century mosque in Yazd, Persia is based on a circle, divided into six by six circles drawn around it, all touching at its centre and each touching its two neighbours' centres to form a regular hexagon. On this basis is constructed a six-pointed star surrounded by six smaller irregular hexagons to form a tessellating star pattern. This forms the basic design which is outlined in white on the wall of the mosque. That design, however, is overlaid with an intersecting tracery in blue around tiles of other colours, forming an elaborate pattern that partially conceals the original and underlying design. [16] [17] A similar design forms the logo of the Mohammed Ali Research Center. [18]

One of the early Western students of Islamic patterns, Ernest Hanbury Hankin, defined a "geometrical arabesque" as a pattern formed "with the help of construction lines consisting of polygons in contact." [2] He observed that many different combinations of polygons can be used as long as the residual spaces between the polygons are reasonably symmetrical. For example, a grid of octagons in contact has squares (of the same side as the octagons) as the residual spaces. Every octagon is the basis for an 8-point star, as seen at Akbar's tomb, Sikandra (1605–1613). Hankin considered the "skill of the Arabian artists in discovering suitable combinations of polygons .. almost astounding." [2] He further records that if a star occurs in a corner, exactly one quarter of it should be shown; if along an edge, exactly one half of it. [2]

The Topkapı Scroll, made in Timurid dynasty Iran in the late-15th century or beginning of the 16th century, contains 114 patterns including coloured designs for girih tilings and muqarnas quarter or semidomes. [19] [20] [21]

The mathematical properties of the decorative tile and stucco patterns of the Alhambra palace in Granada, Spain have been extensively studied. Some authors have claimed on dubious grounds to have found most or all of the 17 wallpaper groups there. [22] [23] Moroccan geometric woodwork from the 14th to 19th centuries makes use of only 5 wallpaper groups, mainly p4mm and c2mm, with p6mm and p2mm occasionally and p4gm rarely; it is claimed that the "Hasba" (measure) method of construction, which starts with n-fold rosettes, can however generate all 17 groups. [24]

Evolution

Early stage: simple geometric patterns on lustre tiles in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia. 836 onwards Grande Mosquee de Kairouan, carreaux lustres - Kairouan's Great Mosque, luster tiles.jpg
Early stage: simple geometric patterns on lustre tiles in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia. 836 onwards

Early stage

The earliest geometrical forms in Islamic art were occasional isolated geometric shapes such as 8-pointed stars and lozenges containing squares. These date from 836 in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia, and since then have spread all across the Islamic world. [25]

Middle stage

Middle stage patterns on geometric borders around a Mihrab in the Alaeddin Mosque, Konya, Turkey. 1220 onwards Turkey, Konya - Alaeddin Mosque 03.jpg
Middle stage patterns on geometric borders around a Mihrab in the Alâeddin Mosque, Konya, Turkey. 1220 onwards

The next development, marking the middle stage of Islamic geometric pattern usage, was of 6- and 8-point stars, which appear in 879 at the Ibn Tulun Mosque, Cairo, and then became widespread. [25]

A wider variety of patterns were used from the 11th century. Abstract 6- and 8-point shapes appear in the Tower of Kharaqan at Qazvin, Persia in 1067, and the Al-Juyushi Mosque, Egypt in 1085, again becoming widespread from there, though 6-point patterns are rare in Turkey. [25]

In 1086, 7- and 10-point girih patterns (with heptagons, 5- and 6-pointed stars, triangles and irregular hexagons) appear in the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan. 10-point girih became widespread in the Islamic world, except in the Spanish Al-Andalus. [25] Soon afterwards, sweeping 9-, 11-, and 13-point girih patterns were used in the Barsian Mosque, also in Persia, in 1098; these, like 7-point geometrical patterns, are rarely used outside Persia and central Asia. [25]

Finally, marking the end of the middle stage, 8- and 12-point girih rosette patterns appear in the Alâeddin Mosque at Konya, Turkey in 1220, and in the Abbasid palace in Baghdad in 1230, going on to become widespread across the Islamic world. [25]

Late stage

Late stage: geometric, vegetal, and calligraphic patterns around the Mihrab at the Jama Masjid, Fatehpur Sikri. 1571-5 Mihrab at Jama Masjid, Fatehpur Sikri.jpg
Late stage: geometric, vegetal, and calligraphic patterns around the Mihrab at the Jama Masjid, Fatehpur Sikri. 1571-5

The beginning of the late stage is marked by the use of simple 16-point patterns at the Hasan Sadaqah mausoleum in Cairo in 1321, and in the Alhambra in Spain in 1338–1390. These patterns are rarely found outside these two regions. More elaborate combined 16-point geometrical patterns are found in the Sultan Hassan complex in Cairo in 1363, but rarely elsewhere. Finally, 14-point patterns appear in the Jama Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri in India in 1571–1596, but in few other places. [25] [lower-alpha 4]

Artforms

Several artforms in different parts of the Islamic world make use of geometric patterns. These include ceramics, [27] girih strapwork, [28] jali pierced stone screens, [29] kilim rugs, [30] leather, [31] metalwork, [32] muqarnas vaulting, [33] shakaba stained glass, [34] woodwork, [28] and zellij tiling. [35]

Ceramics

Ceramics lend themselves to circular motifs, whether radial or tangential. Bowls or plates can be decorated inside or out with radial stripes; these may be partly figurative, representing stylised leaves or flower petals, while circular bands can run around a bowl or jug. Patterns of these types were employed on Islamic ceramics from the Ayyubid period, 13th century. Radially symmetric flowers with, say, 6 petals lend themselves to increasingly stylised geometric designs which can combine geometric simplicity with recognisably naturalistic motifs, brightly coloured glazes, and a radial composition that ideally suits circular crockery. Potters often chose patterns suited to the shape of the vessel they were making. [27] Thus an unglazed earthenware water flask [lower-alpha 5] from Aleppo in the shape of a vertical circle (with handles and neck above) is decorated with a ring of moulded braiding around an Arabic inscription with a small 8-petalled flower at the centre. [36]

Girih tilings and woodwork

Girih are elaborate interlacing patterns formed of five standardized shapes. The style is used in Persian Islamic architecture and also in decorative woodwork. [28] Girih designs are traditionally made in different media including cut brickwork, stucco, and mosaic faience tilework. In woodwork, especially in the Safavid period, it could be applied either as lattice frames, left plain or inset with panels such as of coloured glass; or as mosaic panels used to decorate walls and ceilings, whether sacred or secular. In architecture, girih forms decorative interlaced strapwork surfaces from the 15th century to the 20th century. Most designs are based on a partially hidden geometric grid which provides a regular array of points; this is made into a pattern using 2-, 3-, 4-, and 6-fold rotational symmetries which can fill the plane. The visible pattern superimposed on the grid is also geometric, with 6-, 8-, 10- and 12-pointed stars and a variety of convex polygons, joined by straps which typically seem to weave over and under each other. [28] [37] The visible pattern does not coincide with the underlying construction lines of the tiling. [28] The visible patterns and the underlying tiling represent a bridge linking the invisible to the visible, analogous to the "epistemological quest" in Islamic culture, the search for the nature of knowledge. [38]

Jali

Mosque of Ibn Tulun: window with girih-style 10-point stars (at rear), with floral roundels in octagons forming a frieze at front Kairo Ibn Tulun Moschee BW 6.jpg
Mosque of Ibn Tulun: window with girih-style 10-point stars (at rear), with floral roundels in octagons forming a frieze at front

Jali are pierced stone screens with regularly repeating patterns. They are characteristic of Indo-Islamic architecture, for example in the Mughal dynasty buildings at Fatehpur Sikri and the Taj Mahal. The geometric designs combine polygons such as octagons and pentagons with other shapes such as 5- and 8-pointed stars. The patterns emphasized symmetries and suggested infinity by repetition. Jali functioned as windows or room dividers, providing privacy but allowing in air and light. [29] Jali forms a prominent element of the architecture of India. [39] The use of perforated walls has declined with modern building standards and the need for security. Modern, simplified jali walls, for example made with pre-moulded clay or cement blocks, have been popularised by the architect Laurie Baker. [40] Pierced windows in girih style are sometimes found elsewhere in the Islamic world, such as in windows of the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo. [41]

Kilim

Somewhat geometric motifs such as the Wolf's Mouth (Kurt Agzi), to protect the flocks against wolves, are often woven into tribal kilims. Wolf's Mouth Kilim Motif.jpg
Somewhat geometric motifs such as the Wolf's Mouth (Kurt Aǧzi), to protect the flocks against wolves, are often woven into tribal kilims.

A kilim is an Islamic [30] flatwoven carpet (without a pile), whether for household use or a prayer mat. The pattern is made by winding the weft threads back over the warp threads when a colour boundary is reached. This technique leaves a gap or vertical slit, so kilims are sometimes called slit-woven textiles. Kilims are often decorated with geometric patterns with 2- or 4-fold mirror or rotational symmetries. Because weaving uses vertical and horizontal threads, curves are difficult to generate, and patterns are accordingly formed mainly with straight edges. [17] [42] Kilim patterns are often characteristic of specific regions. [43] Kilim motifs are often symbolic as well as decorative. For example, the wolf's mouth or wolf's foot motif (Turkish: Kurt Aǧzi, Kurt İzi) expresses the tribal weavers' desires for protection of their families' flocks from wolves. [44]

Leather

Islamic leather is often embossed with patterns similar to those already described. Leather book covers, starting with the Quran where figurative artwork was excluded, were decorated with a combination of kufic script, medallions and geometric patterns, typically bordered by geometric braiding. [31]

Metalwork

Metal artefacts share the same geometric designs that are used in other forms of Islamic art. However, in the view of Hamilton Gibb, the emphasis differs: geometric patterns tend to be used for borders, and if they are in the main decorative area they are most often used in combination with other motifs such as floral designs, arabesques, animal motifs, or calligraphic script. Geometric designs in Islamic metalwork can form a grid decorated with these other motifs, or they can form the background pattern. [32]

Even where metal objects such as bowls and dishes do not seem to have geometric decoration, still the designs, such as arabesques, are often set in octagonal compartments or arranged in concentric bands around the object. Both closed designs (which do not repeat) and open or repetitive patterns are used. Patterns such as interlaced six-pointed stars were especially popular from the 12th century. Eva Baer [lower-alpha 6] notes that while this design was essentially simple, it was elaborated by metalworkers into intricate patterns interlaced with arabesques, sometimes organised around further basic Islamic patterns, such as the hexagonal pattern of six overlapping circles. [46]

Muqarnas

Muqarnas are elaborately carved ceilings to semi-domes, often used in mosques. They are typically made of stucco (and thus do not have a structural function), but can also be of wood, brick, and stone. They are characteristic of Islamic architecture of the Middle Ages from Spain and Morocco in the west to Persia in the east. Architecturally they form multiple tiers of squinches, diminishing in size as they rise. They are often elaborately decorated. [33]

Stained glass

Geometrically patterned stained glass is used in a variety of settings in Islamic architecture. It is found in the surviving summer residence of the Palace of Shaki Khans, Azerbaijan, constructed in 1797. Patterns in the "shabaka" windows include 6-, 8-, and 12-point stars. These wood-framed decorative windows are distinctive features of the palace's architecture. Shabaka are still constructed the traditional way in Sheki in the 21st century. [34] [47] Traditions of stained glass set in wooden frames (not lead as in Europe) survive in workshops in Iran as well as Azerbaijan. [48] Glazed windows set in stucco arranged in girih-like patterns are found both in Turkey and the Arab lands; a late example, without the traditional balance of design elements, was made in Tunisia for the International Colonial Exhibition in Amsterdam in 1883. [49] The old city of Sana'a in Yemen has stained glass windows in its tall buildings. [50]

Zellij

Zellij (Arabic : الزَّلِيْج) is geometric tilework with glazed terracotta tiles set into plaster, forming colourful mosaic patterns including regular and semiregular tessellations. The tradition is characteristic of Morocco, but is also found in Moorish Spain. Zellij is used to decorate mosques, public buildings and wealthy private houses. [35]

Illustrations

Outside Islamic art

In Western culture

A tessellation of glazed ceramic tiles forming colourful geometric patterns in the Alhambra, Spain, which inspired M. C. Escher Alhambra-p3-closeup.jpg
A tessellation of glazed ceramic tiles forming colourful geometric patterns in the Alhambra, Spain, which inspired M. C. Escher

It is sometimes supposed in Western society that mistakes in repetitive Islamic patterns such as those on carpets were intentionally introduced as a show of humility by artists who believed only Allah can produce perfection, but this theory is denied. [52] [53] [54]

Tessellations, arabesques and calligraphy on a wall of the Myrtle court, Alhambra, Granada, Spain Arabesques alhambra.jpg
Tessellations, arabesques and calligraphy on a wall of the Myrtle court, Alhambra, Granada, Spain

Major Western collections hold many objects of widely varying materials with Islamic geometric patterns. The Victoria and Albert Museum in London holds at least 283 such objects, of materials including wallpaper, carved wood, inlaid wood, tin- or lead-glazed earthenware, brass, stucco, glass, woven silk, ivory, and pen or pencil drawings. [55] The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York has among other relevant holdings 124 mediaeval (1000–1400 A.D.) objects bearing Islamic geometric patterns, [56] including a pair of Egyptian minbar (pulpit) doors almost 2 m. high in rosewood and mulberry inlaid with ivory and ebony; [57] and an entire mihrab (prayer niche) from Isfahan, decorated with polychrome mosaic, and weighing over 2,000 kg. [58]

Wooden box inlaid with ivory with zellij-like geometrical motifs. Italy (Florence or Venice) 15th century. Wooden box inlaid with ivory in floral and zellige-like geometrical motifs Italy 15th century.jpg
Wooden box inlaid with ivory with zellij-like geometrical motifs. Italy (Florence or Venice) 15th century.

Islamic decoration and craftsmanship had a significant influence on Western art when Venetian merchants brought goods of many types back to Italy from the 14th century onwards. [59]

The Dutch artist M. C. Escher was inspired by the Alhambra's intricate decorative designs to study the mathematics of tessellation, transforming his style and influencing the rest of his artistic career. [60] [61] In his own words it was "the richest source of inspiration I have ever tapped." [62]

Influence on the sciences

Cultural organisations such as the Mathematical Sciences Research Institute and the Institute for Advanced Study run events on geometric patterns and related aspects of Islamic art. [63] In 2013 the Istanbul Center of Design and the Ensar Foundation ran what they claimed was the first ever symposium of Islamic Arts and Geometric Patterns, in Istanbul. The panel included the experts on Islamic geometric pattern Carol Bier, [lower-alpha 7] Jay Bonner, [lower-alpha 8] [66] Eric Broug, [lower-alpha 9] Hacali Necefoğlu [lower-alpha 10] and Reza Sarhangi. [lower-alpha 11] [70] In Britain, The Prince's School of Traditional Arts runs a range of courses in Islamic art including geometry, calligraphy, and arabesque (vegetal forms), tile-making, and plaster carving. [71]

Tomb towers of two Seljuk princes at Kharaghan, Qazvin province, Iran, covered with many different brick patterns like those that inspired Ahmad Rafsanjani to create auxetic materials Kharaghan.jpg
Tomb towers of two Seljuk princes at Kharaghan, Qazvin province, Iran, covered with many different brick patterns like those that inspired Ahmad Rafsanjani to create auxetic materials

Computer graphics and computer-aided manufacturing make it possible to design and produce Islamic geometric patterns effectively and economically. Craig S. Kaplan explains and illustrates in his Ph.D. thesis how Islamic star patterns can be generated algorithmically. [72]

Two physicists, Peter J. Lu and Paul Steinhardt, attracted controversy in 2007 by claiming [73] that girih designs such as that used on the Darb-e Imam shrine [lower-alpha 12] in Isfahan were able to create quasi-periodic tilings resembling those discovered by Roger Penrose in 1973. They showed that rather than the traditional ruler and compass construction, it was possible to create girih designs using a set of five "girih tiles", all equilateral polygons, secondarily decorated with lines (for the strapwork). [74]

In 2016, Ahmad Rafsanjani described the use of Islamic geometric patterns from tomb towers in Iran to create auxetic materials from perforated rubber sheets. These are stable in either a contracted or an expanded state, and can switch between the two, which might be useful for surgical stents or for spacecraft components. When a conventional material is stretched along one axis, it contracts along other axes (at right angles to the stretch). But auxetic materials expand at right angles to the pull. The internal structure that enables this unusual behaviour is inspired by two of the 70 Islamic patterns that Rafsanjani noted on the tomb towers. [75]

Notes

  1. ↑ Critchlow is a professor of architecture, and the author of a book on Islamic patterns.
  2. ↑ Wade is the author of a series of books on pattern in various artforms.
  3. ↑ Behrens-Abouseif is a professor of the history of art and architecture at SOAS.
  4. ↑ One such place is the Mustansiriyya Madrasa in Baghdad, as illustrated by Broug. [26]
  5. ↑ Leaving the flask porous allowed evaporation, keeping the water cool. [36]
  6. ↑ Baer is Emeritus Professor of Islamic Studies at Tel Aviv University. [45]
  7. ↑ Bier is a historian of Islamic art who studies pattern. [64]
  8. ↑ Bonner is an architect specialising in Islamic ornament. [65]
  9. ↑ Broug writes books and runs courses on Islamic geometric design. [67]
  10. ↑ Necefoğlu is a professor of chemistry at Kafkas University interested in pattern and crystallography. [68]
  11. ↑ Sarhangi is the founder of The Bridges Organization. He studies the mathematics of Persian architecture and mosaic design. [69]
  12. ↑ Illustrated above.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sacred geometry</span> Symbolic and sacred meanings ascibed to certain geometric shapes

Sacred geometry ascribes symbolic and sacred meanings to certain geometric shapes and certain geometric proportions. It is associated with the belief of a divine creator of the universal geometer. The geometry used in the design and construction of religious structures such as churches, temples, mosques, religious monuments, altars, and tabernacles has sometimes been considered sacred. The concept applies also to sacred spaces such as temenoi, sacred groves, village greens, pagodas and holy wells, Mandala Gardens and the creation of religious and spiritual art.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tile</span> Manufactured pieces for covering surfaces

Tiles are usually thin, square or rectangular coverings manufactured from hard-wearing material such as ceramic, stone, metal, baked clay, or even glass. They are generally fixed in place in an array to cover roofs, floors, walls, edges, or other objects such as tabletops. Alternatively, tile can sometimes refer to similar units made from lightweight materials such as perlite, wood, and mineral wool, typically used for wall and ceiling applications. In another sense, a tile is a construction tile or similar object, such as rectangular counters used in playing games. The word is derived from the French word tuile, which is, in turn, from the Latin word tegula, meaning a roof tile composed of fired clay.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Takht-e Soleymān</span> Archaeological site in West Azerbaijan, Iran

Takht-e Soleymān or Adur Gushnasp, is an archaeological site in West Azerbaijan, Iran dating back to Sasanian Empire. It lies midway between Urmia and Hamadan, very near the present-day town of Takab, and 400 km (250 mi) west of Tehran.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ben Youssef Madrasa</span> Historic monument in Marrakesh, Morocco

The Ben Youssef Madrasa is an Islamic madrasa (college) in Marrakesh, Morocco. The madrasa is named after the adjacent Ben Youssef Mosque, and was commissioned in 1564–65 CE by the Saadian sultan Abdallah al-Ghalib. Functioning today as a historical site, the Ben Youssef Madrasa was the largest Islamic college in the Maghreb at its height, and is widely recognized as a pinnacle of Saadian and Moroccan architecture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mudéjar art</span> Art style in post-Islamic Spain

Mudéjar art, or Mudéjar style, was a type of ornamentation and decoration used in the Iberian Christian kingdoms, primarily between the 13th and 16th centuries. It was applied to Romanesque, Gothic and Renaissance architectural styles as constructive, ornamental and decorative motifs derived from those that had been brought to or developed in Al-Andalus. These motifs and techniques were also present in the art and crafts, especially Hispano-Moresque lustreware that was once widely exported across Europe from southern and eastern Spain at the time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Moroccan architecture</span> Architecture in Morocco

Moroccan architecture reflects Morocco's diverse geography and long history, marked by successive waves of settlers through both migration and military conquest. This architectural heritage includes ancient Roman sites, historic Islamic architecture, local vernacular architecture, 20th-century French colonial architecture, and modern architecture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Strapwork</span>

In the history of art and design, strapwork is the use of stylised representations in ornament of ribbon-like forms. These may loosely imitate leather straps, parchment or metal cut into elaborate shapes, with piercings, and often interwoven in a geometric pattern. In early examples there may or may not be three-dimensionality, either actual in curling relief ends of the elements, or just represented in two dimensions. As the style continued, these curling elements became more prominent, often turning into scrollwork, where the ends curl into spirals or scrolls. By the Baroque scrollwork was a common element in ornament, often partly submerged by other rich ornament.

<i>Jali</i> Architectural decoration in Indian architecture

A jali or jaali is the term for a perforated stone or latticed screen, usually with an ornamental pattern constructed through the use of calligraphy, geometry or natural patterns. This form of architectural decoration is common in Indo-Islamic architecture and more generally in Indian architecture. It is closely related to mashrabiya in Islamic architecture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saadian Tombs</span> Necropolis, cemetery in Marrakesh, Morocco

The Saadian Tombs are a historic royal necropolis in Marrakesh, Morocco, located on the south side of the Kasbah Mosque, inside the royal kasbah (citadel) district of the city. They date to the time of the Saadian dynasty and in particular to the reign of Ahmad al-Mansur (1578–1603), though members of Morocco's monarchy continued to be buried here for a time afterwards. The complex is regarded by many art historians as the high point of Moroccan architecture in the Saadian period due to its luxurious decoration and careful interior design. Today the site is a major tourist attraction in Marrakesh.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Moorish architecture</span> Architectural style historically developed in the western Islamic world

Moorish architecture is a style within Islamic architecture which developed in the western Islamic world, including al-Andalus and what is now Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. Scholarly references on Islamic architecture often refer to this architectural tradition in terms such as architecture of the Islamic West or architecture of the Western Islamic lands. The use of the term "Moorish" comes from the historical Western European designation of the Muslim inhabitants of these regions as "Moors". Some references on Islamic art and architecture consider this term to be outdated or contested.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stucco decoration in Islamic architecture</span> Decorative technique

Stucco decoration in Islamic architecture refers to carved or molded stucco and plaster. The terms "stucco" and "plaster" are used almost interchangeably in this context to denote most types of stucco or plaster decoration with slightly varying compositions. This decoration was mainly used to cover walls and surfaces and the main motifs were those predominant in Islamic art: geometric, arabesque, and calligraphic, as well as three-dimensional muqarnas. Plaster of gypsum composition was extremely important in Islamic architectural decoration as the relatively dry climate throughout much of the Islamic world made it easy to use this cheap and versatile material in a variety of spaces.

<i>Zellij</i> Mosaic tile decoration

Zellij is a style of mosaic tilework made from individually hand-chiseled tile pieces. The pieces were typically of different colours and fitted together to form various patterns on the basis of tessellations, most notably elaborate Islamic geometric motifs such as radiating star patterns. This form of Islamic art is one of the main characteristics of architecture in the western Islamic world. It is found in the architecture of Morocco, the architecture of Algeria, early Islamic sites in Tunisia, and in the historic monuments of al-Andalus. From the 14th century onwards, zellij became a standard decorative element along lower walls, in fountains and pools, on minarets, and for the paving of floors.

<i>Girih</i> tiles Five tiles used in Islamic decorative art

Girihtiles are a set of five tiles that were used in the creation of Islamic geometric patterns using strapwork (girih) for decoration of buildings in Islamic architecture. They have been used since about the year 1200 and their arrangements found significant improvement starting with the Darb-i Imam shrine in Isfahan in Iran built in 1453.

<i>Girih</i> Geometric patterns in Islamic architecture

Girih are decorative Islamic geometric patterns used in architecture and handicraft objects, consisting of angled lines that form an interlaced strapwork pattern.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bou Inania Madrasa</span> Madrasa and mosque in Fes, Morocco

The Bou Inania Madrasa or Bu 'Inaniya Madrasa is a madrasa in Fes, Morocco, built in 1350–55 CE by Abu Inan Faris. It is the only madrasa in Morocco which also functioned as a congregational mosque. It is widely acknowledged as a high point of Marinid architecture and of historic Moroccan architecture generally.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islamic ornament</span> Decorative forms and patterns in Islamic art and architecture

Islamic ornament is the use of decorative forms and patterns in Islamic art and Islamic architecture. Its elements can be broadly divided into the arabesque, using curving plant-based elements, geometric patterns with straight lines or regular curves, and calligraphy, consisting of religious texts with stylized appearance, used both decoratively and to convey meaning. All three often involve elaborate interlacing in various mediums.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Al-Attarine Madrasa</span> Historic madrasa in Fez, Morocco

The Al-Attarine Madrasa or Medersa al-Attarine is a madrasa in Fes, Morocco, near the Al-Qarawiyyin Mosque. It was built by the Marinid sultan Uthman II Abu Said in 1323-5. The madrasa takes its name from the Souk al-Attarine, the spice and perfume market. It is considered one of the highest achievements of Marinid architecture due to its rich and harmonious decoration and its efficient use of limited space.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shah Nematollah Vali Shrine</span>

The Shah Nematollah Vali Shrine is a historical complex, located in Mahan, Iran, which contains the mausoleum of Shah Nematollah Vali, the renowned Iranian mystic and poet. Shah Nematollah Vali died in 1431 aged over 100. In 1436 a shrine was erected in his honor and became a pilgrimage site; with the attention of successive rulers contributing various additions over the centuries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Topkapı Scroll</span> Timurid dynasty scroll

The Topkapı Scroll is a Timurid dynasty patterned scroll in the collection of the Topkapı Palace museum.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Al-Hamra Mosque</span>

The al-Hamra Mosque or Red Mosque is a Marinid-era mosque in Fes, Morocco. It is a local Friday mosque located on the Grande Rue of Fes el-Jdid, the palace-city founded by the Marinid rulers.

References

  1. 1 2 3 "Geometric Patterns in Islamic Art". Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Hankin, Ernest Hanbury (1925). The Drawing of Geometric Patterns in Saracenic Art. Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India No. 15. Government of India Central Publication Branch.
  3. ↑ Bonner, Jay (2017-08-17). Islamic Geometric Patterns: Their Historical Development and Traditional Methods of Construction. Springer. p. 6. ISBN   978-1-4419-0217-7.
  4. ↑ Bouaissa, Malikka (27 July 2013). "The crucial role of geometry in Islamic art". Al Arte Magazine. Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
  5. ↑ Bonner, Jay (2017). Islamic geometric patterns : their historical development and traditional methods of construction. New York: Springer. p. 1. ISBN   978-1-4419-0216-0. OCLC   1001744138.
  6. ↑ Bier, Carol (Sep 2008). "Art and Mithãl: Reading Geometry as Visual Commentary". Iranian Studies. 41 (4): 491–509. doi:10.1080/00210860802246176. JSTOR   25597484. S2CID   171003353.
  7. ↑ Critchlow, Keith (1976). Islamic Patterns : an analytical and cosmological approach. Thames and Hudson. ISBN   0-500-27071-6.
  8. ↑ Field, Robert (1998). Geometric Patterns from Islamic Art & Architecture. Tarquin Publications. ISBN   978-1-899618-22-4.
  9. ↑ Ahuja, Mangho; Loeb, A. L. (1995). "Tessellations in Islamic Calligraphy". Leonardo. 28 (1): 41–45. doi:10.2307/1576154. JSTOR   1576154. S2CID   191368443.
  10. 1 2 Wade, David. "The Evolution of Style". Pattern in Islamic Art. Archived from the original on 19 May 2022. Retrieved 12 April 2016. Much of the art of Islam, whether in architecture, ceramics, textiles or books, is the art of decoration – which is to say, of transformation. The aim, however, is never merely to ornament, but rather to transfigure. ... The vast edifices of mosques are transformed into lightness and pattern; the decorated pages of a Qur'an can become windows onto the infinite. Perhaps most importantly, the Word, expressed in endless calligraphic variations, always conveys the impression that it is more enduring than the objects on which it is inscribed.
  11. ↑ Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (1999). Beauty in Arabic Culture. Markus Wiener. pp. 7–8. ISBN   978-1-558-76199-5.
  12. ↑ Broug, Eric (2008). Islamic Geometric Patterns. Thames and Hudson. pp. 183–185, 193. ISBN   978-0-500-28721-7.
  13. ↑ Hussain, Zarah (30 June 2009). "Introduction to Islamic art". BBC. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
  14. ↑ Bellos, Alex; Broug (Illustrator), Eric (10 February 2015). "Muslim rule and compass: the magic of Islamic geometric design". The Guardian . Retrieved 1 December 2015.
  15. ↑ Verostko, Roman (1999) [1994]. "Algorithmic Art".
  16. 1 2 Henry, Richard. "Geometry – The Language of Symmetry in Islamic Art". Art of Islamic Pattern. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
  17. 1 2 Lockerbie, John. "Islamic Design: Arabic / Islamic geometry 01". Catnaps.org. Archived from the original on 13 April 2019. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  18. ↑ "Islamic Art and Geometric Design". MOHA. 2014. Archived from the original on 3 December 2015. Retrieved 3 December 2015. The logo's construction is demonstrated in an animation on the MOHA website.
  19. ↑ Gülru Necipoğlu (1992). Geometric Design in Timurid/Turkmen Architectural Practice: Thoughts on a Recently Discovered Scroll and Its Late Gothic Parallels (PDF). E.J. Brill. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-12-22. Retrieved 2015-12-02.{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  20. ↑ Saliba, George (1999). "Artisans and Mathematicians in Medieval Islam. The Topkapi Scroll: Geometry and Ornament in Islamic Architecture by Gülru Necipoğlu (Review)". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 119 (4): 637–645. doi:10.2307/604839. JSTOR   604839. (subscription required)
  21. ↑ van den Hoeven, Saskia, van der Veen, Maartje. "Muqarnas-Mathematics in Islamic Arts" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 15 January 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ↑ Perez-Gomez, R. (1987). "The Four Regular Mosaics Missing in the Alhambra" (PDF). Comput. Math. Applic. 14 (2): 133–137. doi: 10.1016/0898-1221(87)90143-x .
  23. ↑ Grünbaum, Branko (June 2006). "What Symmetry Groups Are Present in the Alhambra?" (PDF). Notices of the AMS. 53 (6): 670–673.
  24. ↑ Aboufadil, Y.; Thalal, A.; Raghni, M. A. E. I. (2013). "Symmetry groups of Moroccan geometric woodwork patterns". Journal of Applied Crystallography. 46 (6): 1834–1841. doi:10.1107/S0021889813027726.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Abdullahi, Yahya; Bin Embi, Mohamed Rashid (2013). "Evolution of Islamic geometric patterns". Frontiers of Architectural Research. 2 (2): 243–251. doi: 10.1016/j.foar.2013.03.002 .
  26. ↑ Broug, Eric (2013). Islamic Geometric Design. Thames and Hudson. p. 173. ISBN   978-0-500-51695-9.
  27. 1 2 "Geometric Decoration and the Art of the Book. Ceramics". Museum with no Frontiers. Retrieved 7 December 2015.
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 Gereh-Sāzī. Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  29. 1 2 "For Educators: Geometric Design in Islamic Art: Image 15". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  30. 1 2 Thompson, Muhammad; Begum, Nasima. "Islamic Textile Art and how it is Misunderstood in the West – Our Personal Views". Salon du Tapis d'Orient. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  31. 1 2 "Geometric Decoration and the Art of the Book. Leather". Museum with no Frontiers. Retrieved 7 December 2015.
  32. 1 2 Gibb, Sir Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen (1954). The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Brill Archive. pp. 990–992. GGKEY:N71HHP1UY5E.
  33. 1 2 Tabbaa, Yasser. "The Muqarnas Dome: Its Origin and Meaning" (PDF). Archnet. pp. 61–74. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  34. 1 2 King, David C. King (2006). Azerbaijan . Marshall Cavendish. p.  99. ISBN   978-0-7614-2011-8.
  35. 1 2 Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2006). Culture and Customs of Morocco. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 58. ISBN   978-0-313-33289-0.
  36. 1 2 "Flask". Victoria and Albert Museum . Retrieved 7 December 2015.
  37. ↑ "Gereh-Sazi". Tebyan. 20 August 2011. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
  38. ↑ Hooman, Koliji (April 2016). "Gazing Geometries: Modes of Design Thinking in Pre-Modern Central Asia and Persian Architecture". Nexus Network Journal. 18: 105–132. doi: 10.1007/s00004-016-0288-6 .
  39. ↑ "intypes. perforate". Cornell University. Retrieved 18 January 2016.
  40. ↑ Varanashi, Satyaprakash (30 January 2011). "The multi-functional jaali". The Hindu . Retrieved 18 January 2016.
  41. ↑ Mozzati, Luca (2010). Islamic Art. Prestel. p. 27. ISBN   978-3-7913-4455-3.
  42. ↑ "CARPETS v. Flat-woven carpets: Techniques and structures". Encyclopaedia Iranica . Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  43. ↑ "Turkish Kilim Rug". Through the Collector's Eye. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  44. ↑ Erbek, Güran (1998). Kilim Catalogue No. 1. May Selçuk A. S. Edition=1st.
  45. ↑ Baer, Eva (1989). Ayyubid Metalwork With Christian Images. BRILL. ISBN   9004089624 . Retrieved 15 January 2016.
  46. ↑ Baer, Eva (1983). Metalwork in Medieval Islamic Art. SUNY Press. pp. 122–132. ISBN   978-0-87395-602-4.
  47. ↑ Sharifov, Azad (1998). "Shaki Paradise in the Caucasus Foothills". Azerbaijan International. 6 (2): 28–35.
  48. ↑ Alin, Marina (21 January 2014). "Wood, glass, geometry – stained glass in Iran and Azerbaijan". Islamic Arts & Architecture. Archived from the original on 26 January 2016. Retrieved 18 January 2016.
  49. ↑ "Carved stucco and stained glass window". Islamic Arts & Architecture. 16 December 2011. Archived from the original on 26 January 2016. Retrieved 18 January 2016.
  50. ↑ Hansen, Eri c (21 December 2011). "Sana'a Rising – "a Venice built on sand."". Islamic Arts & Architecture. Archived from the original on 26 January 2016. Retrieved 18 January 2016.
  51. ↑ Locher, J. L. (1971). The World of M. C. Escher. Abrams. p. 17. ISBN   0-451-79961-5.
  52. ↑ Thompson, Muhammad; Begum, Nasima. "Islamic Textile Art: Anomalies in Kilims". Salon du Tapis d'Orient. TurkoTek. Retrieved 25 August 2009.
  53. ↑ Alexenberg, Melvin L. (2006). The future of art in a digital age: from Hellenistic to Hebraic consciousness . Intellect. p.  55. ISBN   1-84150-136-0.
  54. ↑ Backhouse, Tim. "Only God is Perfect". Islamic and Geometric Art. Retrieved 25 August 2009.
  55. ↑ "Search the Collections "Islamic geometric pattern"". Victoria and Albert Museum . Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  56. ↑ "Islamic geometric pattern A.D. 1000–1400". Metropolitan Museum of Art . Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  57. ↑ "Pair of Minbar Doors". Metropolitan Museum of Art . Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  58. ↑ "Mihrab (Prayer Niche)". Metropolitan Museum of Art . Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  59. ↑ Mack, Rosamond E. (2001). Bazaar to Piazza: Islamic Trade and Italian Art, 1300-1600. University of California Press. pp. Chapter 1. ISBN   0-520-22131-1.
  60. ↑ Roza, Greg (2005). An Optical Artist: Exploring Patterns and Symmetry. Rosen Classroom. p. 20. ISBN   978-1-4042-5117-5.
  61. ↑ Monroe, J. T. (2004). Hispano-Arabic Poetry: A Student Anthology. Gorgias Press LLC. p. 65. ISBN   978-1-59333-115-3.
  62. ↑ O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (May 2000). "Maurits Cornelius Escher". Biographies. University of St Andrews. Retrieved 2 November 2015. which cites Strauss, S. (9 May 1996). "M C Escher". The Globe and Mail.
  63. ↑ "Geometric Patterns in Islamic Art". National Math Festival. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  64. ↑ "Selected Works of Carol Bier". SelectedWorks. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  65. ↑ Bonner, Jay. "About". Bonner Design. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  66. ↑ Bonner, Jay (2017). Islamic geometric patterns : their historical development and traditional methods of construction. New York: Springer. ISBN   978-1-4419-0216-0. OCLC   1001744138.
  67. ↑ "School of Islamic Geometric Design". Eric Broug. Archived from the original on 8 April 2019. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
  68. ↑ "Prof.Dr. Hacali Necefoğlu (Fen Edebiyat Fakültesi)". Akademik Bilgi Sistemi (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 5 May 2018. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  69. ↑ "Reza Sarhangi". Towson University. Archived from the original on 27 November 2015. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  70. ↑ "Istanbul hosts first ever Islamic geometric arts symposium". World Bulletin. 25 September 2013. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  71. ↑ "Introduction to Islamic Art". The Prince's School of Traditional Arts. Archived from the original on 3 December 2015. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
  72. ↑ Kaplan, Craig S. (2002). "Computer Graphics and Geometric Ornamental Design: Chapter 3. Islamic Star Patterns". University of Waterloo (PhD thesis). Archived from the original on 30 December 2015. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
  73. ↑ Lu, P. J.; Steinhardt, P. J. (2007). "Decagonal and Quasi-crystalline Tilings in Medieval Islamic Architecture". Science. 315 (5815): 1106–1110. Bibcode:2007Sci...315.1106L. doi:10.1126/science.1135491. PMID   17322056. S2CID   10374218. Archived from the original on 2015-12-08. Retrieved 2015-12-04.
  74. ↑ Ball, Philip (22 February 2007). "Islamic tiles reveal sophisticated maths". Nature: news070219–9. doi: 10.1038/news070219-9 . S2CID   178905751 . Retrieved 4 December 2015.
  75. ↑ Webb, Jonathan (16 March 2016). "Islamic art inspires stretchy, switchable materials". British Broadcasting Corporation . Retrieved 16 March 2016.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.