Diseases of affluence

Last updated
Satirical lithograph of 1818 depicting a self-indulgent and wealthy man afflicted with gout (represented by a demon); the disease is commonly caused by consumption of sugar, alcoholic beverages and meat; lack of physical activity; and obesity. It was formerly common among the upper classes of Western society. A self-indulgent man afflicted with gout; the pain is represented by a demon burning his foot Wellcome V0010850.jpg
Satirical lithograph of 1818 depicting a self-indulgent and wealthy man afflicted with gout (represented by a demon); the disease is commonly caused by consumption of sugar, alcoholic beverages and meat; lack of physical activity; and obesity. It was formerly common among the upper classes of Western society.

Diseases of affluence, previously called diseases of rich people, is a term sometimes given to selected diseases and other health conditions which are commonly thought to be a result of increasing wealth in a society. [1] Also referred to as the "Western disease" paradigm, these diseases are in contrast to "diseases of poverty", which largely result from and contribute to human impoverishment. These diseases of affluence have vastly increased in prevalence since the end of World War II.

Contents

Examples of diseases of affluence include mostly chronic non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and other physical health conditions for which personal lifestyles and societal conditions associated with economic development are believed to be an important risk factor—such as type 2 diabetes, asthma, coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease, obesity, hypertension, cancer, alcoholism, gout, and some types of allergy. [1] [2] They may also be considered to include depression and other mental health conditions associated with increased social isolation and lower levels of psychological well-being observed in many developed countries. [3] [ failed verification ] Many of these conditions are interrelated, for example obesity is thought to be a partial cause of many other illnesses. [4]

In contrast, the diseases of poverty have tended to be largely infectious diseases, or the result of poor living conditions. These include tuberculosis, malaria, and intestinal diseases. [5] Increasingly, research is finding that diseases thought to be diseases of affluence also appear in large part in the poor. These diseases include obesity and cardiovascular disease and, coupled with infectious diseases, these further increase global health inequalities. [1]

Diseases of affluence started to become more prevalent in developing countries as diseases of poverty decline, longevity increases, and lifestyles change. [1] [2] In 2008, nearly 80% of deaths due to NCDs—including heart disease, strokes, chronic lung diseases, cancers and diabetes—occurred in low- and middle-income countries. [6]

Main instances

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the top 10 causes of deaths in 2019 were from: [7]

  1. Ischemic heart diseases
  2. Stroke
  3. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
  4. Lower respiratory infections
  5. Neonatal conditions
  6. Trachea, bronchus, lung cancers
  7. Alzheimer's disease and other dementias
  8. Diarrheal diseases
  9. Diabetes
  10. Kidney diseases

Seven of the main causes of death are non-communicable diseases. In 2019 WHO reported 55.4 million deaths worldwide, and more than half (55%), were due to the top causes of death previously mentioned. [8]

Causes

Factors associated with the increase of these conditions and illnesses appear to be things that are a direct result of technological advances. They include:

Diabetes mellitus

Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disease characterized by increase blood glucose level. Type 2 diabetes is the most common form of diabetes. It is caused by resistance to insulin or the lack of production of insulin. It is seen most commonly in adults. Type 1 diabetes or juvenile diabetes is diagnosed mostly in children. This condition is due to little or lack of insulin production from the pancreas. [10]

According to WHO the prevalence of diabetes has quadrupled from 1980 to 422 million adults. [11] [12] The global prevalence of diabetes has increased from 4.7% in 1980 to 8.5% in 2014. [10] Diabetes has been a major cause for blindness, kidney failure, heart attack, stroke and lower limb amputation. [10]

Prevalence in countries of affluence

The Centers of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) released a report in 2015 indicating that more than 100 million Americans have diabetes or pre-diabetes. Diabetes was the seventh leading cause of death in the United States in 2015. [13] In developed countries like the United States, the risk for diabetes is seen in people with low socioeconomic status (SES). [14] Socioeconomic status is defined by the education and the income level of a person. [15] The prevalence of diabetes varies by education level. Of those diagnosed with diabetes:12.6% of adults had less than a high school education, 9.5% had a high school education and 7.2% had more than high school education. [16]

Differences in diabetes prevalence are seen in the population and ethnic groups in the US. Diabetes is more common in non-Hispanic whites who are less educated and have a lower income. [17] It is also more common in less educated Hispanics. [18] The highest prevalence of diabetes is seen in the southeast, southern and Appalachian portion of the United States. [18] In the United States the prevalence of diabetes is increasing in children and adolescents. In 2015, 25 million people were diagnosed with diabetes, of which 193,000 were children. [18] The total direct and indirect cost of diagnosed diabetes in US in 2012 was $245 billion. [16]

In 2009, the Canadian Diabetes Association (CDA) estimated that diagnosed diabetes will increase from 1.3 million in 2000 to 2.5 million in 2010 and 3.7 million in 2020. [19] Diabetes was the 7th leading cause of death in Canada in 2015. Like United States, diabetes in more prevalent in the low socioeconomic group of people in Canada. [19]

According to the International Diabetes Federation, more than 58 million people are diagnosed with diabetes in the European Union Region (EUR), and this will go up to 66.7 million by 2045. Similar to other affluent countries like America and Canada, diabetes is more prevalent in the poorer parts of Europe like Central and Eastern Europe. [20]

In Australia according to self-reported data, 1 in 7 adults or approximately 1.2 million people had diabetes in 2014–2015. People who were living in remote or socioeconomically disadvantaged areas were 4 times more likely to develop type 2 diabetes as compared to non-indigenous Australians. [21] Australia incurred $20.8 million in direct costs towards hospitalization, medication, and out-patient treatment towards diabetes. In 2015, $1.2 billion were lost in Australia's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) due to diabetes. [22]

In these countries of affluence, diabetes is prevalent in low socioeconomic groups of people as there is abundance of unhealthy food choices, high energy rich food, and decreased physical activity. [23] More affluent people are typically more educated and have tools to counter unhealthy foods, such as access to healthy food, physical trainers, and parks and fitness centers. [24]

Risk factors

Obesity and being overweight is one of the main risk factors of type 2 diabetes. Other risk factors include lack of physical activity, genetic predisposition, being over 45 years old, tobacco use, high blood pressure and high cholesterol. [16] In United States, the prevalence of obesity was 39.8% in adults and 18.5% in children and adolescents in 2015–2016. [25] In Australia in 2014–2015, 2 out 3 adults or 63% were overweight or obese. Also, 2 out of 3 adults did little or no exercise. [26] According to the World Health Organization, Europe had the 2nd highest proportion of overweight or obese people in 2014 behind the Americas. [27]

In developing countries

According to WHO the prevalence of diabetes is rising more in the middle and low income countries. [28] Over the next 25 years, the number of people with diabetes in developing countries will increase by over 150%. Diabetes is typically seen in people above the retirement age in developed countries, but in developing countries people in the age of 35–64 are mostly affected. Although, diabetes is considered a disease of affluence affecting the developed countries, there is more loss of life and premature death among people with diabetes in the developing countries. [29] Asia accounts for 60% of the world's diabetic population. In 1980 less than 1% of Chinese adults were affected by diabetes, but by 2008 the prevalence was 10%. [30] It is predicted that by 2030 diabetes may affect 79.4 million people in India, 42.3 million people in China and 30.3 million in United States. [31]

These changes are the result of developing nations having rapid economic development. This rapid economic development has caused a change in the lifestyle and food habits leading to over-nutrition, increased intake of fast food causing increase in weight, and insulin resistance. [30] Compared to the west, obesity in Asia is low. India has very low prevalence of obesity, but a very high prevalence of diabetes suggesting that diabetes may occur at a lower BMI in Indians as compared to the Europeans. Smoking increases the risk for diabetes by 45%. In developing countries around 50–60% adult males are regular smokers, increasing their risk for diabetes. [30] In developing countries, diabetes is more commonly seen in the more urbanized areas. The prevalence of diabetes in rural population is 1/4th that of urban population for countries like India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. [31]

Cardiovascular disease

Cardiovascular disease refers to a disease of the heart and blood vessels. Conditions and diseases associated with heart disease include: stroke, coronary heart disease, congenital heart disease, heart failure, peripheral vascular disease, and cardiomyopathy. [32] Cardiovascular disease is known as the world's biggest killer. 17.5 million people die from it each year, which equals 31% of all deaths. Heart disease and stroke cause 80% of these deaths. [33]

Risk factors

High blood pressure is the leading risk factor for cardiovascular disease and has contributed to 12% of the cardiovascular related deaths worldwide. [33] Other significant risk factors for heart disease include high cholesterol and smoking. 47% of all Americans have one of these three risk factors. [34] Lifestyle choices, such as poor diet and physical inactivity, and excessive alcohol use can also contribute to cardiovascular disease. Medical conditions, like diabetes and obesity can also be risk factors. [34]

Prevalence in countries of affluence

In the United States, 610,000 people die every year from heart disease which is equal to 1 in 4 deaths. The leading cause of death for both men and women in the United States is heart disease. [34] In Canada, heart disease is the second leading cause of death. In 2014, it was the cause of death for 51,000 people. [35] In Australia, heart disease is also the leading cause of death. 29% of deaths in 2015, had an underlying cause of heart disease. [36] Heart disease causes one in four premature deaths in the United Kingdom and in 2015 heart disease caused 26% of all deaths in that country. [37]

People of lower socio-economic status are more likely to have cardiovascular disease than those who have a higher socio-economic status. [38] This inequality gap has occurred in developed countries because people who have a lower socio-economic status often face many of the risk factors of tobacco and alcohol use, obesity as well as having a sedentary lifestyle. [39] Further social and environmental factors such as poverty, pollution, family history, housing and employment contribute to this inequality gap and to risk of having a health condition caused by cardiovascular disease. The increasing inequality gap between the higher and lower income populations continues in countries such as Canada, despite the availability of health care for everyone. [40]

Alzheimer's disease and other dementias

Dementia is a chronic syndrome which is characterized by deterioration in the thought process beyond what is expected from normal aging. It affects the persons memory, thinking, orientation, comprehension, behavior and ability to perform everyday activity. There are many different forms of dementia. Alzheimer is the most common form which contributes to 60–70% of the dementia cases. Different forms of dementia can co-exist. Young onset dementia which occurs in individuals before the age of 65 contributes to 9% of the total cases. It is the major cause of disability and dependency among old people. [41]

Worldwide, there are 50 million people with dementia and every year 10 million new cases are being reported. The total number of people with dementia is projected to reach 82 million by 2030 and 152 million in 2050. [41]

Prevalence in countries of affluence

According to CDC, Alzheimer is the 6th leading cause of death in U.S adults and 5th leading cause of death in adults over the age of 65. In 2014, 5 million Americans above the age of 65 were diagnosed with Alzheimer. This number is predicted to triple by the year 2060 and reach up to 14 million. Dementia and Alzheimer has been shown to go unreported on death certificates, leading to under representation of the actual mortality caused by these diseases. [42] Between 2000 and 2015, mortality due to cardiovascular diseases has decreased by 11%, where as death from Alzheimer has increased by 123%. 1 in 3 people over the age of 65 die from Alzheimer or other forms of dementia. Furthermore, 200,000 individuals have been affected by young onset dementia. In United States, Alzheimer affects more women than men. It is twice more common in African-Americans and Hispanics than in whites. As the number of older Americans increases rapidly, the number of new cases of Alzheimer will rise too . [43]

East Asia has the most people living with dementia (9.8 million) followed by Western Europe (7.5 million), South Asia (5.1 million) and North America (4.8 million). [44] In 2016, the prevalence of Alzheimer was 5.05% in Europe. Like in United States, it is more prevalent in women than in men. [45] In the European Union, Finland has the highest mortality among both men and women due to dementia. [46] In Canada, over half a million people are living with dementia. It is projected that by 2031 the number will go up by 66% to 937,000. Every year 25,000 new cases of dementia are diagnosed . [47]

Dementia is the second leading cause of death in Australia. In 2016, it was the leading cause of deaths in females. In Australia 436,366 people are living with dementia in 2018. 3 in 10 people over the age of 85 and 1 in 10 people over the age of 65 have dementia. It is the single greatest cause of disability in older Australians . [48] Rates of dementia are higher for indigenous people. In people from the northern territory and western Australia the prevalence of dementia is 26 times higher in the 45–69 year old group and about 20 times greater in 60–69 year old group. [49]

Risk factors in countries of affluence

The risk factors for developing dementia or Alzheimer's include age, family history, genetic factors, environmental factors, brain injury, viral infections, neurotoxic chemicals, and various immunological and hormonal disorders. [50] [51]

A new research study has found an association between the affluence of a country, hygiene conditions and the prevalence of Alzheimer in their population. According to the Hygiene Hypothesis, affluent countries with more urbanized and industrialized areas have better hygiene, better sanitation, clean water and improved access to antibiotics. [52] This reduces the exposure to the friendly bacteria, virus and other microorganisms that help stimulate our immune system. Decreased microbial exposure leads to immune system that is poorly developed, which exposes the brain to inflammation as is seen in Alzheimer's disease. [53]

Countries like the UK and France that have access to clean drinking water, improved sanitation facilities and have a high GDP show a 9% increase in Alzheimer's disease as opposed to countries like Kenya and Cambodia. [53] Also countries like UK and Australia, where three quarters of their population lives in urban areas, have a 10% higher Alzheimer's rate than in countries like Bangladesh and Nepal where less than one tenth of their population live in urban areas. [53]

Alzheimer's risk changes with the environment. Individuals from the same ethnic background living in an area of low sanitation will have a lower risk as compared to the same individuals living in an area of high sanitation who will be exposed to a higher risk of developing Alzheimer's. An African-American in U.S. has a higher risk of developing Alzheimer's as compared to one living in Nigeria. [52] Immigrant populations exhibit Alzheimer disease rates intermediate between their home country and adopted country. Moving from a country of high sanitation to a country of low sanitation reduces the risk associated with the disease. [52]

Mental illness

People who face poverty have more risks related to having a mental illness and also do not have as much access to treatment. The stressful events that they face, unsafe living condition and poor physical health lead to cycle of poverty and mental illness that is seen all over the world. [54] According to the World Health Organization 76–85% of people living in lower and middle income countries are not treated for their mental illness. For those in higher-income counties, 35–50% of people with mental illness do not receive treatment. [55] It is estimated that 90% of deaths by suicide are caused by substance use disorders and mental illness in higher income countries. In lower to middle income countries, this number is lower. [56]

Prevalence of mental illness

One in four people have experienced mental illness at one time in their lives, and approximately 450 million people in the world currently have a mental illness. [54] Those who are impoverished live in conditions associated with a higher risk for mental illness and, to compound the issue, do not have as much access to treatment. Stress, unsafe living conditions, and poor physical health associated with lack of sufficient income lead to a cycle of poverty and mental illness that is observed worldwide. [54] In the U.S., approximately one in five adults has a mental illness, or 44.7 million people. [57] In 2016, it was estimated that 268 million people in the world had depression. [56]

Anxiety disorders, such as generalized anxiety, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder affected 275 million people worldwide in 2016. The global proportion of people affected by anxiety disorders is between 2.5 and 6.5%. Australia, Brazil, Argentina, Iran, the United States, and a number of countries in Western Europe appear to have a higher prevalence of anxiety disorders. [56]

Cancer

Cancer is a generic term for a large group of disease which is characterized by rapid creation of abnormal cells that grow beyond their usual boundaries. These cells can invade adjoining parts of the body and spread to other organs causing metastases, which is a major cause of death. According to WHO, Cancer is the second leading cause of death globally. One in six deaths worldwide are caused due to cancer, accounting to a total of 9.6 million deaths in 2018. Tracheal, bronchus, and lung cancer is the leading form of cancer deaths across most high and middle-income countries. [58]

Prevalence in countries of affluence

In United States, 1,735,350 new cases of cancer will be diagnosed in 2018. Most common forms of cancer are cancer of the breast, lung, bronchus, prostate, colorectal cancer, melanoma of skin, Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, renal cancer, thyroid cancer and liver cancer. Cancer mortality is higher among men than in women. African-Americans have the highest risk of mortality due to cancer. [59] Cancer is also the leading cause of death in Australia. The most common cancers in Australia are prostate, breast, colorectal, melanoma and lung cancer. These account for 60% of the cancer cases diagnosed in Australia. [60]

Europe contains only 1/8 of the world population, but has around one quarter of the global cancer cases, with 3.7 million new cases each year. Lung, breast, stomach, liver, colon are the most common cancers in Europe. [61] The overall incidences among different cancers vary across countries. [62]

About one in two Canadians will develop cancer in their lifetime, and one in four will die of the disease. In 2017, 206,200 new cases of cancer were diagnosed. Lung, colorectal, breast, and prostate cancer accounted for about half of all cancer diagnoses and deaths. [63]

Risk factors

High prevalence of cancer in high-income countries is attributed to lifestyle factors like obesity, smoking, physical inactivity, diet and alcohol intake. [58] Around 40% of the cancers can be prevented by modifying these factors. [64]

Allergies/autoimmune diseases

The rate of allergies around the world has risen in industrialized nations over the past 50 years. [65] A number of public health measures, such as sterilized milk, use of antibiotics and improved food production have contributed to a decrease in infections in developed countries. There is a proposed causal relationship, known as the "hygiene hypothesis" that indicates that there are more autoimmune disorders and allergies in developed countries with fewer infections. [66] In developing countries, it is assumed that the rates of allergies are lower than developed countries. That assumption may not be accurate due to limited data on prevalence. [67] Research has found an increase in asthma by 10% in countries such as Peru, Costa Rica, and Brazil. [66]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vascular dementia</span> Dementia resulting from stroke

Vascular dementia is dementia caused by a series of strokes. Restricted blood flow due to strokes reduces oxygen and glucose delivery to the brain, causing cell injury and neurological deficits in the affected region. Subtypes of vascular dementia include subcortical vascular dementia, multi-infarct dementia, stroke-related dementia, and mixed dementia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lifestyle disease</span> Diseases linked with the way people live their life

Lifestyle diseases can be defined as the diseases linked to the manner in which a person lives their life. These diseases are non-communicable, and can be caused by lack of physical activity, unhealthy eating, alcohol, substance use disorders and smoking tobacco, which can lead to heart disease, stroke, obesity, type II diabetes and lung cancer. The diseases that appear to increase in frequency as countries become more industrialized and people live longer include Alzheimer's disease, arthritis, atherosclerosis, asthma, cancer, chronic liver disease or cirrhosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, colitis, irritable bowel syndrome, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, hypertension, metabolic syndrome, chronic kidney failure, osteoporosis, PCOD, stroke, depression, obesity and vascular dementia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Preventive healthcare</span> Prevention of the occurrence of diseases

Preventive healthcare, or prophylaxis, is the application of healthcare measures to prevent diseases. Disease and disability are affected by environmental factors, genetic predisposition, disease agents, and lifestyle choices, and are dynamic processes that begin before individuals realize they are affected. Disease prevention relies on anticipatory actions that can be categorized as primal, primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention.

A chronic condition is a health condition or disease that is persistent or otherwise long-lasting in its effects or a disease that comes with time. The term chronic is often applied when the course of the disease lasts for more than three months. Common chronic diseases include diabetes, functional gastrointestinal disorder, eczema, arthritis, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, autoimmune diseases, genetic disorders and some viral diseases such as hepatitis C and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. An illness which is lifelong because it ends in death is a terminal illness. It is possible and not unexpected for an illness to change in definition from terminal to chronic. Diabetes and HIV for example were once terminal yet are now considered chronic due to the availability of insulin for diabetics and daily drug treatment for individuals with HIV which allow these individuals to live while managing symptoms.

Diseases of poverty are diseases that are more prevalent in low-income populations. They include infectious diseases, as well as diseases related to malnutrition and poor health behaviour. Poverty is one of the major social determinants of health. The World Health Report (2002) states that diseases of poverty account for 45% of the disease burden in the countries with high poverty rate which are preventable or treatable with existing interventions. Diseases of poverty are often co-morbid and ubiquitous with malnutrition. Poverty increases the chances of having these diseases as the deprivation of shelter, safe drinking water, nutritious food, sanitation, and access to health services contributes towards poor health behaviour. At the same time, these diseases act as a barrier for economic growth to affected people and families caring for them which in turn results into increased poverty in the community. These diseases produced in part by poverty are in contrast to diseases of affluence, which are diseases thought to be a result of increasing wealth in a society.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Non-communicable disease</span> Medical conditions that cannot transmit from one individual to another

A non-communicable disease (NCD) is a disease that is not transmissible directly from one person to another. NCDs include Parkinson's disease, autoimmune diseases, strokes, heart diseases, cancers, diabetes, chronic kidney disease, osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, Alzheimer's disease, cataracts, and others. NCDs may be chronic or acute. Most are non-infectious, although there are some non-communicable infectious diseases, such as parasitic diseases in which the parasite's life cycle does not include direct host-to-host transmission.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aging-associated diseases</span> Type of disease

An aging-associated disease is a disease that is most often seen with increasing frequency with increasing senescence. They are essentially complications of senescence, distinguished from the aging process itself because all adult animals age but not all adult animals experience all age-associated diseases. The term does not refer to age-specific diseases, such as the childhood diseases chicken pox and measles, only diseases of the elderly. They are also not accelerated aging diseases, all of which are genetic disorders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Health in the United States</span> Overall health of the population of the United States

Health may refer to "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity.", according to the World Health Organization (WHO). 78.7 was the average life expectancy for individuals at birth in 2017. The highest cause of death for United States citizens is heart disease. Sexually transmitted infections impact the health of approximately 19 million yearly. The two most commonly reported infections include chlamydia and gonorrhea. The United States is currently challenged by the COVID-19 pandemic, and is 19th in the world in COVID-19 vaccination rates. All 50 states in the U.S. require immunizations for children in order to enroll in public school, but various exemptions are available by state. Immunizations are often compulsory for military enlistment in the United States.

Australia is a high income country, and this is reflected in the good status of health of the population overall. In 2011, Australia ranked 2nd on the United Nations Development Programme's Human Development Index, indicating the level of development of a country. Despite the overall good status of health, the disparities occurring in the Australian healthcare system are a problem. The poor and those living in remote areas as well as indigenous people are, in general, less healthy than others in the population, and programs have been implemented to decrease this gap. These include increased outreach to the indigenous communities and government subsidies to provide services for people in remote or rural areas.

Social epidemiology focuses on the patterns in morbidity and mortality rates that emerge as a result of social characteristics. While an individual's lifestyle choices or family history may place him or her at an increased risk for developing certain illnesses, there are social inequalities in health that cannot be explained by individual factors. Variations in health outcomes in the United States are attributed to several social characteristics, such as gender, race, socioeconomic status, the environment, and educational attainment. Inequalities in any or all of these social categories can contribute to health disparities, with some groups placed at an increased risk for acquiring chronic diseases than others.

Chronic, non-communicable diseases account for an estimated 80% of total deaths and 70% of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) lost in China. Cardiovascular diseases, chronic respiratory disease, and cancer are the leading causes of both death and of the burden of disease, and exposure to risk factors is high: more than 300 million men smoke cigarettes and 160 million adults are hypertensive, most of whom are not being treated. An obesity epidemic is imminent, with more than 20% of children aged 7–17 years in big cities now overweight or obese. Rates of death from chronic disease in middle-aged people are higher in China than in some high-income countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Health in Finland</span> Overview of health in Finland

The major causes of deaths in Finland are cardiovascular diseases, malignant tumors, dementia and Alzheimer's disease, respiratory diseases, alcohol related diseases and accidental poisoning by alcohol. In 2010, the leading causes of death among men aged 15 to 64 were alcohol related deaths, ischaemic heart disease, accident, suicides, lung cancer and cerebrovascular diseases. Among women the leading causes were breast cancer, alcohol related deaths, accidents, suicides, ischaemic heart disease and lung cancer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Health in Brunei</span>

Brunei's healthcare system is managed by the Brunei Ministry of Health and funded by the General Treasury. It consists of around 15 health centers, ten clinics and 22 maternal facilities, considered to be of reasonable standard. There are also two private hospitals. Cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes are the leading cause of death in the country, with life expectancy around 75 years, a vast improvement from 1961. Brunei's human development index (HCI) improved from 0.81 in 2002 to 0.83 in 2021, expanding at an average annual rate of 0.14%. According to the UN's Human Development Report 2020, the HCI for girls in the country is greater than for boys, though aren't enough statistics in Brunei to break down HCI by socioeconomic classes. Brunei is the second country in Southeast Asia after Singapore to be rated 47th out of 189 nations on the UN HDI 2019 and has maintained its position in the Very High Human Development category. Being a culturally taboo subject, the rate of suicide has not been investigated.

This article provides a global overview of the current trends and distribution of metabolic syndrome. Metabolic syndrome refers to a cluster of related risk factors for cardiovascular disease that includes abdominal obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and elevated cholesterol.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Epidemiology of diabetes</span>

Globally, an estimated 537 million adults are living with diabetes, according to 2019 data from the International Diabetes Federation. Diabetes was the 9th-leading cause of mortality globally in 2020, attributing to over 2 million deaths annually due to diabetes directly, and to kidney disease due to diabetes. The primary causes of type 2 diabetes is diet and physical activity, which can contribute to increased BMI, poor nutrition, hypertension, alcohol use and smoking, while genetics is also a factor. Diabetes prevalence is increasing rapidly; previous 2019 estimates put the number at 463 million people living with diabetes, with the distributions being equal between both sexes icidence peaking around age 55 years old. The number is projected to 643 million by 2030, or 7079 individuals per 100,000, with all regions around the world continue to rise. Type 2 diabetes makes up about 85-90% of all cases. Increases in the overall diabetes prevalence rates largely reflect an increase in risk factors for type 2, notably greater longevity and being overweight or obese. The prevalence of African Americans with diabetes is estimated to triple by 2050, while the prevalence of whites is estimated to double. The overall prevalence increases with age, with the largest increase in people over 65 years of age. The prevalence of diabetes in America is estimated to increase to 48.3 million by 2050.

Montenegro is a country with an area of 13,812 square kilometres and a population of 620,029, according to the 2011 census. The country is bordered by Croatia, the Adriatic Sea, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Serbia, Kosovo and Albania. The most common health issues faced are non-communicable diseases accounting for 95% of all deaths. This is followed by 4% of mortality due to injury, and 1% due to communicable, maternal, perinatal and nutritional conditions. Other health areas of interest are alcohol consumption, which is the most prevalent disease of addiction within Montenegro and smoking. Montenegro has one of the highest tobacco usage rates across Europe. Life expectancy for men is 74 years, and life expectancy for women is 79.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dementia and Alzheimer's disease in Australia</span> Major health issue in Australia

Dementia and Alzheimer's disease in Australia is a major health issue. Alzheimer's disease is the most common type of dementia in Australia. Dementia is an ever-increasing challenge as the population ages and life expectancy increases. As a consequence, there is an expected increase in the number of people with dementia, posing countless challenges to carers and the health and aged care systems. In 2018, an estimated 376,000 people had dementia; this number is expected to increase to 550,000 by 2030 and triple to 900,000 by 2050. The dementia death rate is increasing, resulting in the shift from fourth to second leading cause of death from 2006 to 2015. It is expected to become the leading cause of death over the next number of years. In 2011, it was the fourth leading cause of disease burden and third leading cause of disability burden. This is expected to remain the same until at least 2020.

Native Americans are affected by noncommunicable illnesses related to social changes and contemporary eating habits. Increasing rates of obesity, poor nutrition, sedentary lifestyle, and social isolation affect many Americans. While subject to the same illnesses, Native Americans have higher morbidity and mortality to diabetes and cardiovascular disease as well as certain forms of cancer. Social and historical factors tend to promote unhealthy behaviors including suicide and alcohol dependence. Reduced access to health care in Native American communities means that these diseases as well as infections affect more people for longer periods of time.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) in African Americans is becoming a rising topic of interest in AD care, support, and scientific research, as African Americans are disproportionately affected by AD. Recent research on AD has shown that there are clear disparities in the disease among racial groups, with higher prevalence and incidence in African Americans than the overall average. Pathologies for Alzheimer’s also seem to manifest differently in African Americans, including with neuroinflammation markers, cognitive decline, and biomarkers. Although there are genetic risk factors for Alzheimer’s, these account for few cases in all racial groups.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Ezzati M, Vander Hoorn S, Lawes CM, Leach R, James WP, Lopez AD, Rodgers A, Murray CJ (2005). "Rethinking the "diseases of affluence" paradigm: global patterns of nutritional risks in relation to economic development". PLOS Medicine. 2 (5): e133. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0020133 . PMC   1088287 . PMID   15916467.[ needs update ]
  2. 1 2 "Rethinking "diseases of affluence" (PDF). Geneva: World Health Organization. 2005.
  3. ↑ Luthar SS (2003). "The culture of affluence: psychological costs of material wealth". Child Development. 74 (6): 1581–93. doi:10.1046/j.1467-8624.2003.00625.x. PMC   1950124 . PMID   14669883.
  4. ↑ "The Health Effects of Overweight and Obesity | Healthy Weight, Nutrition, and Physical Activity | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2020-09-17. Retrieved 2021-01-19.
  5. ↑ Singh AR, Singh SA (January 2008). "Diseases of poverty and lifestyle, well-being and human development". Mens Sana Monographs. 6 (1): 187–225. doi: 10.4103/0973-1229.40567 (inactive 2024-04-26). PMC   3190550 . PMID   22013359.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2024 (link)
  6. ↑ World Health Organization. New WHO report: deaths from noncommunicable diseases on the rise, with developing world hit hardest. Geneva, 27 April 2011.
  7. ↑ "The top 10 causes of death". www.who.int. Retrieved 2023-10-23.
  8. ↑ "The top 10 causes of death". www.who.int. Retrieved 2023-10-27.
  9. ↑ Davis C. "The Hygiene Hypothesis". MedicineNet.com.
  10. 1 2 3 "Diabetes". World Health Organization. October 30, 2018.
  11. ↑ "Diabetes programme". World Health Organization. Retrieved 2018-09-29.
  12. ↑ "Global report on diabetes". World Health Organization. 2016.
  13. ↑ "CDC Press Releases". CDC. 2017-07-19. Retrieved 2018-09-29.
  14. ↑ Saydah S, Lochner K (2010). "Socioeconomic status and risk of diabetes-related mortality in the U.S". Public Health Reports. 125 (3): 377–388. doi:10.1177/003335491012500306. PMC   2848262 . PMID   20433032.
  15. ↑ "2017 Diabetes report card" (PDF).
  16. 1 2 3 "National diabetes statistics report 2017" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-12-19. Retrieved 2018-10-04.
  17. ↑ "Diabetes and Hispanic Americans | Office of Minority Health". minorityhealth.hhs.gov. Retrieved 2023-10-22.
  18. 1 2 3 "2017 Diabetes report card" (PDF).
  19. 1 2 Bird Y, Lemstra M, Rogers M, Moraros J (2015). "The relationship between socioeconomic status/income and prevalence of diabetes and associated conditions: A cross-sectional population-based study in Saskatchewan, Canada". International Journal for Equity in Health. 14 (1): 93. doi: 10.1186/s12939-015-0237-0 . PMC   4603875 . PMID   26458543.
  20. ↑ Olejnik, Alicja; Żółtaszek, Agata (July 2016). "Economic Development and spread of diseases of affluence in EU regions".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  21. ↑ "Diabetes Overview – Australian Institute of Health and Welfare". Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Retrieved 2018-10-04.
  22. ↑ "The economic consequence of diabetes" (PDF).
  23. ↑ "Overweight and obesity – BMI statistics – Statistics Explained". ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 2018-10-04.
  24. ↑ "Obesity as a self regulation failure : A disease of affluence that selectively hits the less affluent ?". Behavioral and Brain Sciences.
  25. ↑ "Products – Data Briefs – Number 288 – October 2017". www.cdc.gov. 2017-11-28. Retrieved 2018-09-30.
  26. ↑ "Diabetes Overview – Australian Institute of Health and Welfare". Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Retrieved 2018-09-29.
  27. ↑ "Overweight and obesity – BMI statistics – Statistics Explained". ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 2018-09-30.
  28. ↑ "Diabetes". www.who.int. 8 June 2020. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
  29. ↑ "Diabetes action now" (PDF).
  30. 1 2 3 Hu FB (June 2011). "Globalization of diabetes: the role of diet, lifestyle, and genes". Diabetes Care. 34 (6): 1249–57. doi:10.2337/dc11-0442. PMC   3114340 . PMID   21617109.
  31. 1 2 Kaveeshwar SA, Cornwall J (2014-01-31). "The current state of diabetes mellitus in India". The Australasian Medical Journal. 7 (1): 45–8. doi:10.4066/amj.2014.1979. PMC   3920109 . PMID   24567766.
  32. ↑ "Cardiovascular disease". www.health.gov.au. Australian Government Department of Health, Population Health Division. Retrieved 2018-09-29.
  33. 1 2 "WHO | Noncommunicable diseases: the slow motion disaster". WHO. Archived from the original on May 6, 2017. Retrieved 2018-09-29.
  34. 1 2 3 "Heart Disease Facts & Statistics | cdc.gov". www.cdc.gov. 2017-11-28. Retrieved 2018-09-29.
  35. ↑ Public Health Agency of Canada (2017-08-22). "Surveillance of heart diseases and conditions – Canada.ca". www.canada.ca. Retrieved 2018-09-29.
  36. ↑ McLennan W (April 1996). "The Product of the Australian Bureau of Statistics". Australian Journal of Statistics. 38 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1111/j.1467-842x.1996.tb00359.x.
  37. ↑ "British Heart Foundation, Cardiovascular Disease Statistics". British Heart Foundation, Cardiovascular Disease Statistics. 2015.
  38. ↑ Sheth T, Nargundkar M, Chagani K, Anand S, Nair C, Yusuf S (1997). "Classifying ethnicity utilizing the Canadian Mortality Data Base". Ethnicity & Health. 2 (4): 287–295. doi:10.1080/13557858.1997.9961837. PMID   9526691.
  39. ↑ Filate WA, Johansen HL, Kennedy CC, Tu JV (2003). "Regional variations in cardiovascular mortality in Canada". The Canadian Journal of Cardiology. 19 (11): 1241–1248. PMID   14571309.
  40. ↑ Lee DS, Chiu M, Manuel DG, Tu K, Wang X, Austin PC, Mattern MY, Mitiku TF, Svenson LW, Putnam W, Flanagan WM, Tu JV (2009). "Trends in risk factors for cardiovascular disease in Canada: temporal, socio-demographic and geographic factors". CMAJ. 181 (3–4): E55–E66. doi:10.1503/cmaj.081629. PMC   2717674 . PMID   19620271.
  41. 1 2 "Dementia". World Health Organization. Retrieved 2018-10-24.
  42. ↑ "What is Alzheimer's Disease? | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2018-10-02. Retrieved 2018-10-24.
  43. ↑ "Alzheimers – dementia facts and figures".
  44. ↑ "Global prevalence | Dementia Statistics Hub". Dementia Statistics Hub. Retrieved 2018-10-24.
  45. ↑ Niu H, Álvarez-Álvarez I, Guillén-Grima F, Aguinaga-Ontoso I (October 2017). "Prevalence and incidence of Alzheimer's disease in Europe: A meta-analysis". Neurologia. 32 (8): 523–532. doi: 10.1016/j.nrl.2016.02.016 . hdl: 2454/25704 . PMID   27130306.
  46. ↑ Pajunen, Airi. "Statistics Finland – 3. Deaths from dementia and Alzheimer's disease are increasing". www.stat.fi. Retrieved 2018-10-24.
  47. ↑ "About dementia | Alzheimer Society of Canada". alzheimer.ca. Retrieved 2018-10-24.
  48. ↑ "Dementia statistics". www.dementia.org.au. 2014-08-07. Retrieved 2018-10-24.
  49. ↑ "House of Representatives Committees". www.aph.gov.au. Retrieved 2018-10-24.
  50. ↑ Gavrilova SI, Bratsun AL (1999). "[Epidemiology and risk factors of Alzheimer's disease]". Vestnik Rossiiskoi Akademii Meditsinskikh Nauk (1): 39–46. PMID   10078062.
  51. ↑ "Alzheimer's causes and risk factors".
  52. 1 2 3 Fox M, Knapp LA, Andrews PW, Fincher CL (January 2013). "Hygiene and the world distribution of Alzheimer's disease: Epidemiological evidence for a relationship between microbial environment and age-adjusted disease burden". Evolution, Medicine, and Public Health. 2013 (1): 173–86. doi:10.1093/emph/eot015. PMC   3868447 . PMID   24481197.
  53. 1 2 3 "Better hygiene in wealthy nations may increase Alzheimer's risk". University of Cambridge. 2013-09-04. Retrieved 2018-10-09.
  54. 1 2 3 "WHO | Mental disorders affect one in four people". www.who.int. Retrieved 2018-11-05.
  55. ↑ "Mental disorders". World Health Organization. Retrieved 2018-11-05.
  56. 1 2 3 Roser, Max; Ritchie, Hannah (2018-01-20). "Mental Health". Our World in Data. Retrieved 2018-11-05.
  57. ↑ "NIMH » Mental Illness". www.nimh.nih.gov. Retrieved 2018-11-05.
  58. 1 2 Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max (2015-07-03). "Cancer". Our World in Data. Retrieved 2018-11-06.
  59. ↑ "Cancer Statistics". National Cancer Institute. 2 April 2015. Retrieved 2018-11-06.
  60. ↑ "Facts and figures". www.cancer.org.au. Retrieved 2018-11-06.
  61. ↑ "Data and statistics". www.euro.who.int. 2018-11-06. Retrieved 2018-11-06.
  62. ↑ "Cancer in Europe". The Cancer Atlas. Retrieved 2018-11-06.
  63. ↑ "Canadian Cancer Statistics publication – Canadian Cancer Society". www.cancer.ca. Archived from the original on 2018-01-25. Retrieved 2018-11-06.
  64. ↑ "Cancer trends". 2018-08-22.
  65. ↑ "WHO White Book on Allergy" (PDF).
  66. 1 2 Okada H, Kuhn C, Feillet H, Bach JF (April 2010). "The 'hygiene hypothesis' for autoimmune and allergic diseases: an update". Clinical and Experimental Immunology. 160 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2010.04139.x. PMC   2841828 . PMID   20415844.
  67. ↑ Boye JI (December 2012). "Food allergies in developing and emerging economies: need for comprehensive data on prevalence rates". Clinical and Translational Allergy. 2 (1): 25. doi: 10.1186/2045-7022-2-25 . PMC   3551706 . PMID   23256652.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.