Particle physics

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Particle physics or high-energy physics is the study of fundamental particles and forces that constitute matter and radiation. The field also studies combinations of elementary particles up to the scale of protons and neutrons, while the study of combination of protons and neutrons is called nuclear physics.

Contents

The fundamental particles in the universe are classified in the Standard Model as fermions (matter particles) and bosons (force-carrying particles). There are three generations of fermions, although ordinary matter is made only from the first fermion generation. The first generation consists of up and down quarks which form protons and neutrons, and electrons and electron neutrinos. The three fundamental interactions known to be mediated by bosons are electromagnetism, the weak interaction, and the strong interaction.

Quarks cannot exist on their own but form hadrons. Hadrons that contain an odd number of quarks are called baryons and those that contain an even number are called mesons. Two baryons, the proton and the neutron, make up most of the mass of ordinary matter. Mesons are unstable and the longest-lived last for only a few hundredths of a microsecond. They occur after collisions between particles made of quarks, such as fast-moving protons and neutrons in cosmic rays. Mesons are also produced in cyclotrons or other particle accelerators.

Particles have corresponding antiparticles with the same mass but with opposite electric charges. For example, the antiparticle of the electron is the positron. The electron has a negative electric charge, the positron has a positive charge. These antiparticles can theoretically form a corresponding form of matter called antimatter. Some particles, such as the photon, are their own antiparticle.

These elementary particles are excitations of the quantum fields that also govern their interactions. The dominant theory explaining these fundamental particles and fields, along with their dynamics, is called the Standard Model. The reconciliation of gravity to the current particle physics theory is not solved; many theories have addressed this problem, such as loop quantum gravity, string theory and supersymmetry theory.

Practical particle physics is the study of these particles in radioactive processes and in particle accelerators such as the Large Hadron Collider. Theoretical particle physics is the study of these particles in the context of cosmology and quantum theory. The two are closely interrelated: the Higgs boson was postulated by theoretical particle physicists and its presence confirmed by practical experiments.

History

The Geiger-Marsden experiments observed that a small fraction of the alpha particles experienced strong deflection when being struck by the gold foil. Rutherford Scattering.svg
The Geiger–Marsden experiments observed that a small fraction of the alpha particles experienced strong deflection when being struck by the gold foil.

The idea that all matter is fundamentally composed of elementary particles dates from at least the 6th century BC. [1] In the 19th century, John Dalton, through his work on stoichiometry, concluded that each element of nature was composed of a single, unique type of particle. [2] The word atom , after the Greek word atomos meaning "indivisible", has since then denoted the smallest particle of a chemical element, but physicists later discovered that atoms are not, in fact, the fundamental particles of nature, but are conglomerates of even smaller particles, such as the electron. The early 20th century explorations of nuclear physics and quantum physics led to proofs of nuclear fission in 1939 by Lise Meitner (based on experiments by Otto Hahn), and nuclear fusion by Hans Bethe in that same year; both discoveries also led to the development of nuclear weapons.

Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, a bewildering variety of particles was found in collisions of particles from beams of increasingly high energy. It was referred to informally as the "particle zoo". Important discoveries such as the CP violation by James Cronin and Val Fitch brought new questions to matter-antimatter imbalance. [3] After the formulation of the Standard Model during the 1970s, physicists clarified the origin of the particle zoo. The large number of particles was explained as combinations of a (relatively) small number of more fundamental particles and framed in the context of quantum field theories. This reclassification marked the beginning of modern particle physics. [4] [5]

Standard Model

The current state of the classification of all elementary particles is explained by the Standard Model, which gained widespread acceptance in the mid-1970s after experimental confirmation of the existence of quarks. It describes the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental interactions, using mediating gauge bosons. The species of gauge bosons are eight gluons,
W−
,
W+
 and
Z
 bosons, and the photon. [6] The Standard Model also contains 24 fundamental fermions (12 particles and their associated anti-particles), which are the constituents of all matter. [7] Finally, the Standard Model also predicted the existence of a type of boson known as the Higgs boson. On 4 July 2012, physicists with the Large Hadron Collider at CERN announced they had found a new particle that behaves similarly to what is expected from the Higgs boson. [8]

The Standard Model, as currently formulated, has 61 elementary particles. [9] Those elementary particles can combine to form composite particles, accounting for the hundreds of other species of particles that have been discovered since the 1960s. The Standard Model has been found to agree with almost all the experimental tests conducted to date. However, most particle physicists believe that it is an incomplete description of nature and that a more fundamental theory awaits discovery (See Theory of Everything). In recent years, measurements of neutrino mass have provided the first experimental deviations from the Standard Model, since neutrinos do not have mass in the Standard Model. [10]

Subatomic particles

Elementary Particles
Types Generations Antiparticle Colours Total
Quarks 23Pair336
Leptons PairNone12
Gluons 1NoneOwn 8 8
Photon OwnNone1
Z Boson Own1
W Boson Pair2
Higgs Own1
Total number of (known) elementary particles:61

Modern particle physics research is focused on subatomic particles, including atomic constituents, such as electrons, protons, and neutrons (protons and neutrons are composite particles called baryons, made of quarks), that are produced by radioactive and scattering processes; such particles are photons, neutrinos, and muons, as well as a wide range of exotic particles. [11] All particles and their interactions observed to date can be described almost entirely by the Standard Model. [6]

Dynamics of particles are also governed by quantum mechanics; they exhibit wave–particle duality, displaying particle-like behaviour under certain experimental conditions and wave-like behaviour in others. In more technical terms, they are described by quantum state vectors in a Hilbert space, which is also treated in quantum field theory. Following the convention of particle physicists, the term elementary particles is applied to those particles that are, according to current understanding, presumed to be indivisible and not composed of other particles. [9]

Quarks and leptons

A Feynman diagram of the b decay, showing a neutron (n, udd) converted into a proton (p, udu). "u" and "d" are the up and down quarks, " e " is the electron, and " n e" is the electron antineutrino. Beta Negative Decay.svg
A Feynman diagram of the
β
 decay, showing a neutron (n, udd) converted into a proton (p, udu). "u" and "d" are the up and down quarks, "
e
" is the electron, and "
ν
e" is the electron antineutrino.

Ordinary matter is made from first-generation quarks (up, down) and leptons (electron, electron neutrino). [12] Collectively, quarks and leptons are called fermions, because they have a quantum spin of half-integers (-1/2, 1/2, 3/2, etc.). This causes the fermions to obey the Pauli exclusion principle, where no two particles may occupy the same quantum state. [13] Quarks have fractional elementary electric charge (-1/3 or 2/3) [14] and leptons have whole-numbered electric charge (0 or 1). [15] Quarks also have color charge, which is labeled arbitrarily with no correlation to actual light color as red, green and blue. [16] Because the interactions between the quarks stores energy which can convert to other particles when the quarks are far apart enough, quarks cannot be observed independently. This is called color confinement. [16]

There are three known generations of quarks (up and down, strange and charm, top and bottom) and leptons (electron and its neutrino, muon and its neutrino, tau and its neutrino), with strong indirect evidence that the fourth generation of fermions does not exist. [17]

Bosons

Bosons are the mediators or carriers of fundamental interactions, such as electromagnetism, the weak interaction, and the strong interaction. [18] Electromagnetism is mediated by the photon, the quanta of light. [19] : 29–30  The weak interaction is mediated by the W and Z bosons. [20] The strong interaction is mediated by the gluon, which can link quarks together to form composite particles. [21] Due to the aforementioned color confinement, gluons are never observed independently. [22] The Higgs boson gives mass to the W and Z bosons via the Higgs mechanism [23] – the gluon and photon are expected to be massless. [22] All bosons have an integer quantum spin (0 and 1) and can have the same quantum state. [18]

Antiparticles and color charge

Most aforementioned particles have corresponding antiparticles, which compose antimatter. Normal particles have positive lepton or baryon number, and antiparticles have these numbers negative. [24] Most properties of corresponding antiparticles and particles are the same, with a few gets reversed; the electron's antiparticle, positron, has an opposite charge. To differentiate between antiparticles and particles, a plus or negative sign is added in superscript. For example, the electron and the positron are denoted
e−
 and
e+
. [25] When a particle and an antiparticle interact with each other, they are annihilated and convert to other particles. [26] Some particles, such as the photon or gluon, have no antiparticles.[ citation needed ]

Quarks and gluons additionally have color charges, which influences the strong interaction. Quark's color charges are called red, green and blue (though the particle itself have no physical color), and in antiquarks are called antired, antigreen and antiblue. [16] The gluon can have eight color charges, which are the result of quarks' interactions to form composite particles (gauge symmetry SU(3)). [27]

Composite

A proton consists of two up quarks and one down quark, linked together by gluons. The quarks' color charge are also visible. Quark structure proton.svg
A proton consists of two up quarks and one down quark, linked together by gluons. The quarks' color charge are also visible.

The neutrons and protons in the atomic nuclei are baryons – the neutron is composed of two down quarks and one up quark, and the proton is composed of two up quarks and one down quark. [28] A baryon is composed of three quarks, and a meson is composed of two quarks (one normal, one anti). Baryons and mesons are collectively called hadrons. Quarks inside hadrons are governed by the strong interaction, thus are subjected to quantum chromodynamics (color charges). The bounded quarks must have their color charge to be neutral, or "white" for analogy with mixing the primary colors. [29] More exotic hadrons can have other types, arrangement or number of quarks (tetraquark, pentaquark). [30]

A normal atom is made from protons, neutrons and electrons.[ citation needed ] By modifying the particles inside a normal atom, exotic atoms can be formed. [31] A simple example would be the hydrogen-4.1, which has one of its electrons replaced with a muon. [32]

Hypothetical

The graviton is a hypothetical particle that can mediate the gravitational interaction, but it has not been detected or completely reconciled with current theories. [33]

Experimental laboratories

Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, USA 02 Fermilab - Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory - American particle accelerator Fermilab near Chicago Illinois.jpg
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, USA

The world's major particle physics laboratories are:

Theory

Theoretical particle physics attempts to develop the models, theoretical framework, and mathematical tools to understand current experiments and make predictions for future experiments (see also theoretical physics). There are several major interrelated efforts being made in theoretical particle physics today.

One important branch attempts to better understand the Standard Model and its tests. Theorists make quantitative predictions of observables at collider and astronomical experiments, which along with experimental measurements is used to extract the parameters of the Standard Model with less uncertainty. This work probes the limits of the Standard Model and therefore expands scientific understanding of nature's building blocks. Those efforts are made challenging by the difficulty of calculating high precision quantities in quantum chromodynamics. Some theorists working in this area use the tools of perturbative quantum field theory and effective field theory, referring to themselves as phenomenologists.[ citation needed ] Others make use of lattice field theory and call themselves lattice theorists.

Another major effort is in model building where model builders develop ideas for what physics may lie beyond the Standard Model (at higher energies or smaller distances). This work is often motivated by the hierarchy problem and is constrained by existing experimental data. [46] [47] It may involve work on supersymmetry, alternatives to the Higgs mechanism, extra spatial dimensions (such as the Randall–Sundrum models), Preon theory, combinations of these, or other ideas.

A third major effort in theoretical particle physics is string theory. String theorists attempt to construct a unified description of quantum mechanics and general relativity by building a theory based on small strings, and branes rather than particles. If the theory is successful, it may be considered a "Theory of Everything", or "TOE". [48]

There are also other areas of work in theoretical particle physics ranging from particle cosmology to loop quantum gravity.[ citation needed ]

Practical applications

In principle, all physics (and practical applications developed therefrom) can be derived from the study of fundamental particles. In practice, even if "particle physics" is taken to mean only "high-energy atom smashers", many technologies have been developed during these pioneering investigations that later find wide uses in society. Particle accelerators are used to produce medical isotopes for research and treatment (for example, isotopes used in PET imaging), or used directly in external beam radiotherapy. The development of superconductors has been pushed forward by their use in particle physics. The World Wide Web and touchscreen technology were initially developed at CERN. Additional applications are found in medicine, national security, industry, computing, science, and workforce development, illustrating a long and growing list of beneficial practical applications with contributions from particle physics. [49]

Future

Major efforts to look for physics beyond the Standard Model include the Future Circular Collider proposed for CERN [50] and the Particle Physics Project Prioritization Panel (P5) in the US that will update the 2014 P5 study that recommended the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment, among other experiments.

See also

Related Research Articles

In physics, the fundamental interactions or fundamental forces are the interactions that do not appear to be reducible to more basic interactions. There are four fundamental interactions known to exist:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elementary particle</span> Subatomic particle having no known substructure

In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a subatomic particle that is not composed of other particles. The Standard Model presently recognizes seventeen distinct particles—twelve fermions and five bosons. As a consequence of flavor and color combinations and antimatter, the fermions and bosons are known to have 48 and 13 variations, respectively. Among the 61 elementary particles embraced by the Standard Model number: electrons and other leptons, quarks, and the fundamental bosons. Subatomic particles such as protons or neutrons, which contain two or more elementary particles, are known as composite particles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fermion</span> Type of subatomic particle

In particle physics, a fermion is a particle that follows Fermi–Dirac statistics. Fermions have a half-odd-integer spin and obey the Pauli exclusion principle. These particles include all quarks and leptons and all composite particles made of an odd number of these, such as all baryons and many atoms and nuclei. Fermions differ from bosons, which obey Bose–Einstein statistics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Quark</span> Elementary particle, main constituent of matter

A quark is a type of elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are protons and neutrons, the components of atomic nuclei. All commonly observable matter is composed of up quarks, down quarks and electrons. Owing to a phenomenon known as color confinement, quarks are never found in isolation; they can be found only within hadrons, which include baryons and mesons, or in quark–gluon plasmas. For this reason, much of what is known about quarks has been drawn from observations of hadrons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Weak interaction</span> Interaction between subatomic particles and one of the four known fundamental interactions

In nuclear physics and particle physics, the weak interaction, also called the weak force is one of the four known fundamental interactions, with the others being electromagnetism, the strong interaction, and gravitation. It is the mechanism of interaction between subatomic particles that is responsible for the radioactive decay of atoms: The weak interaction participates in nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. The theory describing its behaviour and effects is sometimes called quantum flavourdynamics (QFD); however, the term QFD is rarely used, because the weak force is better understood by electroweak theory (EWT).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Standard Model</span> Theory of forces and subatomic particles

The Standard Model of particle physics is the theory describing three of the four known fundamental forces in the universe and classifying all known elementary particles. It was developed in stages throughout the latter half of the 20th century, through the work of many scientists worldwide, with the current formulation being finalized in the mid-1970s upon experimental confirmation of the existence of quarks. Since then, proof of the top quark (1995), the tau neutrino (2000), and the Higgs boson (2012) have added further credence to the Standard Model. In addition, the Standard Model has predicted various properties of weak neutral currents and the W and Z bosons with great accuracy.

A timeline of atomic and subatomic physics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Subatomic particle</span> Particle smaller than an atom

In physics, a subatomic particle is a particle smaller than an atom. According to the Standard Model of particle physics, a subatomic particle can be either a composite particle, which is composed of other particles, or an elementary particle, which is not composed of other particles. Particle physics and nuclear physics study these particles and how they interact. Most force carrying particles like photons or gluons are called bosons and, although they have discrete quanta of energy, do not have rest mass or discrete diameters and are unlike the former particles that have rest mass and cannot overlap or combine which are called fermions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Annihilation</span> Collision of a particle and its antiparticle

In particle physics, annihilation is the process that occurs when a subatomic particle collides with its respective antiparticle to produce other particles, such as an electron colliding with a positron to produce two photons. The total energy and momentum of the initial pair are conserved in the process and distributed among a set of other particles in the final state. Antiparticles have exactly opposite additive quantum numbers from particles, so the sums of all quantum numbers of such an original pair are zero. Hence, any set of particles may be produced whose total quantum numbers are also zero as long as conservation of energy, conservation of momentum, and conservation of spin are obeyed.

In particle physics, the W and Z bosons are vector bosons that are together known as the weak bosons or more generally as the intermediate vector bosons. These elementary particles mediate the weak interaction; the respective symbols are
W+
,
W−
, and
Z0
. The
W±
 bosons have either a positive or negative electric charge of 1 elementary charge and are each other's antiparticles. The
Z0
 boson is electrically neutral and is its own antiparticle. The three particles each have a spin of 1. The
W±
 bosons have a magnetic moment, but the
Z0
 has none. All three of these particles are very short-lived, with a half-life of about 3×10−25 s. Their experimental discovery was pivotal in establishing what is now called the Standard Model of particle physics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Large Electron–Positron Collider</span> Particle accelerator at CERN, Switzerland

The Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP) was one of the largest particle accelerators ever constructed. It was built at CERN, a multi-national centre for research in nuclear and particle physics near Geneva, Switzerland.

In particle physics, preons are hypothetical point particles, conceived of as sub-components of quarks and leptons. The word was coined by Jogesh Pati and Abdus Salam, in 1974. Interest in preon models peaked in the 1980s but has slowed, as the Standard Model of particle physics continues to describe physics mostly successfully, and no direct experimental evidence for lepton and quark compositeness has been found. Preons come in four varieties: plus, anti-plus, zero, and anti-zero. W bosons have six preons, and quarks and leptons have only three.

In particle physics, flavour or flavor refers to the species of an elementary particle. The Standard Model counts six flavours of quarks and six flavours of leptons. They are conventionally parameterized with flavour quantum numbers that are assigned to all subatomic particles. They can also be described by some of the family symmetries proposed for the quark-lepton generations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model</span> Mathematics of a particle physics model

This article describes the mathematics of the Standard Model of particle physics, a gauge quantum field theory containing the internal symmetries of the unitary product group SU(3) × SU(2) × U(1). The theory is commonly viewed as describing the fundamental set of particles – the leptons, quarks, gauge bosons and the Higgs boson.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deep inelastic scattering</span> Type of collision between subatomic particles

In particle physics, deep inelastic scattering is the name given to a process used to probe the insides of hadrons, using electrons, muons and neutrinos. It was first attempted in the 1960s and 1970s and provided the first convincing evidence of the reality of quarks, which up until that point had been considered by many to be a purely mathematical phenomenon. It is an extension of Rutherford scattering to much higher energies of the scattering particle and thus to much finer resolution of the components of the nuclei.

In particle physics, a generation or family is a division of the elementary particles. Between generations, particles differ by their flavour quantum number and mass, but their electric and strong interactions are identical.

Leptoquarks are hypothetical particles that would interact with quarks and leptons. Leptoquarks are color-triplet bosons that carry both lepton and baryon numbers. Their other quantum numbers, like spin, (fractional) electric charge and weak isospin vary among models. Leptoquarks are encountered in various extensions of the Standard Model, such as technicolor theories, theories of quark–lepton unification (e.g., Pati–Salam model), or GUTs based on SU(5), SO(10), E6, etc. Leptoquarks are currently searched for in experiments ATLAS and CMS at the Large Hadron Collider in CERN.

The timeline of particle physics lists the sequence of particle physics theories and discoveries in chronological order. The most modern developments follow the scientific development of the discipline of particle physics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of subatomic physics</span> Chronological listing of experiments and discoveries

The idea that matter consists of smaller particles and that there exists a limited number of sorts of primary, smallest particles in nature has existed in natural philosophy at least since the 6th century BC. Such ideas gained physical credibility beginning in the 19th century, but the concept of "elementary particle" underwent some changes in its meaning: notably, modern physics no longer deems elementary particles indestructible. Even elementary particles can decay or collide destructively; they can cease to exist and create (other) particles in result.

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  44. ↑ "Kek | High Energy Accelerator Research Organization". Legacy.kek.jp. Archived from the original on 21 June 2012. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
  45. ↑ "SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory Home Page". Archived from the original on 5 February 2015. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  46. ↑ Gagnon, Pauline (14 March 2014). "Standard Model: a beautiful but flawed theory". Quantum Diaries. Retrieved 7 September 2023.
  47. ↑ "The Standard Model". CERN. Retrieved 7 September 2023.
  48. ↑ Wolchover, Natalie (22 December 2017). "The Best Explanation for Everything in the Universe". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 15 November 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2022.
  49. ↑ "Fermilab | Science at Fermilab | Benefits to Society". Fnal.gov. Archived from the original on 9 June 2012. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
  50. ↑ "Muon Colliders Hold a Key to Unraveling New Physics". www.aps.org. Retrieved 17 September 2023.
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