New 36th Division | |
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Active | 1932–1937 |
Country | Republic of China |
Branch | National Revolutionary Army |
Type | Cavalry (later Infantry) |
Garrison/HQ | Xinjiang, later Yunnan |
Engagements | Xinjiang Wars |
Commanders | |
Ceremonial chief | Ma Zhongying, Ma Hushan |
Notable commanders | Ma Zhongying, Ma Hushan, Ma Zhancang, Ma Fuyuan. Post reorganisation: Li Chih-peng |
36th Division | |||||||
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Traditional Chinese | 新編第三十六師 | ||||||
Simplified Chinese | 新编第三十六师 | ||||||
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The New 36th Division was a cavalry division in the National Revolutionary Army. It was created in 1932 by the Kuomintang for General Ma Zhongying,who was also its first commander. It was made almost entirely out of Hui Muslim troops,all of its officers were Hui,with a few thousand Uighurs forced conscripts in the rank and file. [1] It was commonly referred to as the "KMT 36th Division",or "Tungan 36th Division".
General Ma Zhongying,a Muslim who had trained under Chiang Kai-shek at Whampoa Military Academy in Nanjing in 1929,was the 36th Division commander.
Kamal Kaya Efendi,a Turk and a former Ottoman military officer was chief-of-staff to Ma Zhongying. The 1st Brigade was commanded by General Ma Ju-lung. [2] The 2nd Brigade was commanded by General Ma Sheng-kuei.
Cavalry regiments were divided into 2,000 men each,by horse color,black,brown,or white. Infantry then followed cavalry. [3]
Su Chin-shou was General Ma Zhancang's chief of staff. [4] Pai Tzu-li was another commander in the 36th division. [5]
An unnamed new 36th division general was encountered by Peter Fleming. [6]
Ma Hushan was original Deputy Divisional Commander,then promoted to Chief of the new 36th division. [7]
Primary equipment consisted of Dadao swords,bolt-action Lee–Enfield rifles,captured Soviet rifles,machine guns,and light cannons. [8] [9] [10]
Soviet rifles marked with 1930 dates were seized by Chinese Muslim soldiers from Russians during the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang as war booty. [11]
Ma Zhancang's troops wore green uniforms. [12] Many of the troops wore Kuomintang Blue Sky with a White Sun armbands,and used Kuomintang Blue Sky with a White Sun banners. [13]
Ma Zhongying made his men train in subzero temperatures,and they used shadow fencing to train and parallel bars for exercise. [14] Ma Hushan forced his men to drill every day,conducting siege maneuvers and cavalry attacks. Peter Flemings said "I have never seen troops in China train so hard." [15]
It is documented that troops sang Chinese Muslim marching songs;Ma Zhongying himself had a harmonium with him and spent hours playing Muslim hymns on it. He also kept Mauser pistols. Ma Zhongying cited as his role models Genghis Khan,Napoleon,Bismarck,Hindenburg,and Zuo Zongtang. [16]
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Uighur and Kirghiz Turkic fighters broke their agreement not to attack a column of retreating Han Chinese and Chinese Muslim soldiers from Kashgar.
A minor battle in which Chinese Muslim troops were expelled from the Aksu oases of Xinjiang by Uyghurs when they rose up in revolt. [17]
A minor battle when Chinese Muslim troops under general Ma Zhancang attacked and inflicted a defeat upon Uyghur and Kirghiz armies at Sekes Tesh. About 200 Uyghur and Kirghiz were killed. [18]
Uyghur and Kirghiz forces led by the Bughra brothers and Tawfiq Bay attempted to take the city of Kashgar from Chinese Muslim troops under General Ma Zhancang. They were defeated.
Han Chinese troops commanded by Brigadier Yang were absorbed into Ma Zhancang's army. A number of Han Chinese officers were spotted wearing the green uniforms of Ma Zhancang's unit of the new 36th division, presumably they had converted to Islam. [19]
The new 36th division twice (First Battle of Urumqi and Second Battle of Urumqi) attempted to take the city of Urumqi, the second time, they were joined by a Han Chinese army under Zhang Peiyuan.
In 1934, 2 brigades of Soviet Gosudarstvennoye Politicheskoye Upravlenie (GPU) troops of about 7,000 backed by tanks, planes, and artillery with mustard gas, attacked the new 36th division near Tutung. The battle raged for several weeks on the Tutung frozen river. 36th division troops dressed up in sheepskins in the snow, and charged Soviet machine gun posts with swords to defeat a Soviet pincer attack. Soviet planes bombed the 36th division with mustard gas. Heavy casualties mounted on both sides before Ma Zhongying ordered the 36th division to withdraw. [20] [21]
Ma Zhongying encountered a Soviet armored car column of a few hundred soldiers near Dawan Cheng. The new 36th division wiped out nearly the entire column, after engaging the Soviet in savage hand-to-hand combat, and rolled the wrecked Soviet armored cars off the mountainsides. When a White Russian force showed up, Ma Zhongying withdrew. [20] [22] [23]
36th division General Ma Fuyuan stormed Kashgar, and attacked the Uighur and Kirghiz rebels of the First East Turkestan Republic. He freed another new 36th division general, Ma Zhancang, who was trapped by the Uighurs and Kirghiz. Ma Zhancang repulsed six Uighur attacks, inflicting massive casualties on the Uighur forces. [24] 2,000 to 8,000 Uighur civilians were killed, in revenge for the Kizil massacre. General Ma Zhongying gave a speech at Idgah mosque, reminding the Uighurs to be loyal to the Republic of China government at Nanjing. Several citizens at the British consulate were killed by the 36th division. [25] [26] [27] [28]
Ma Zhancang led the new 36th division to attack Uyghur forces at Yangi Hissar, wiping out the entire Uighur force, and killing the Emir Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra. [29]
Ma Zhancang defeated the Uighur and Afghan volunteers sent by king Mohammed Zahir Shah, and exterminated them all. The emir Abdullah Bughra was killed and beheaded, his head put on display at Idgah mosque. [30]
The new 36th division under General Ma Hushan crushed a revolt by the Uighurs in the Charkhlik oasis. [31]
The new 36th division under General Ma Hushan administered the oases of southern Xinjiang, and their administration was dubbed Tunganistan by Western travelers. Ma Hushan and the new 36th division declared their loyalty to the Kuomintang government in Nanjing and sent emissaries to Nanjing requesting aid to fight against Sheng Shicai's provincial forces and the Soviet Union.
The administration which was set up was colonial in nature, the Chinese Muslims started putting up street signs and names in Chinese, which used to be in only Uighur language. They also sought to live a Chinese lifestyle, importing Chinese cooks and baths. [32] Islam barely played a role except as a "vague spiritual focus" for unified opposition against Sheng Shicai and the Soviet Union. [33]
The Uyghurs in the Charklik oases revolted against the new 36th division in 1935, and the Chinese Muslims crushed the Uyghur insurgents, executed 100 people, and took the family of the Uyghur chief as hostages. [34]
Camels were requisitioned by the new 36th Division in Cherchen. [35]
In May 1937, New 36th Division acting Division Commander Ma Hushan launched a military operation against Sheng Shicai, Siege Kashgar, capture Bachu, and vanguard approaches Aksu. Sheng Shicai request Soviet help. September 1937, three Soviet regiment entry from Artush, defeat Ma Hushan at Bachu, direct to Kashgar and Yarkand, The new 36th division retreats to Hotan, Ma Hushan in early September when the Soviet army occupied Pishan, Abandoned troops and fled to India. The New 36th Division has disintegrated from now on. [36]
The Turkic Islamic Republic of East Turkestan was a short-lived breakaway Islamic republic founded on 12 November 1933; it was the first state to style itself an "Islamic republic." It was centred on the city of Kashgar in what is today Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. Sometimes referred to simply as the East Turkestan Republic (ETR), it was primarily the product of an independence movement of the Uyghur population living there and more broadly of Turkic-ethnicity in character, including Kyrgyz and other Turkic peoples in its government and its population.
The Soviet invasion of Xinjiang was a military campaign of the Soviet Union in the Chinese northwestern region of Xinjiang in 1934. White Russian forces assisted the Soviet Red Army.
Ma Shaowu was a Hui born in Yunnan, in Qing Dynasty China. He was a member of the Xinjiang clique during the Republic of China.
The Charkhlik revolt was a Uighur uprising in 1935 against Chinese Muslim-dominated Tunganistan, which was administered by the New 36th Division. The Chinese Muslim troops quickly and brutally defeated the Uighur revolt. Over 100 Uighurs were executed. The revolt leader's family were made hostages.
Abdullah Bughra was a Uighur Emir of the First East Turkestan Republic. He was the younger brother of Muhammad Amin Bughra and older brother of Emir Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra. He commanded Uighur and Kirghiz forces during the Battle of Kashgar (1934) against the Chinese Muslim 36th Division. The Chinese Muslims were loyal to the Chinese government and wanted to crush the Turkic Muslim Uighurs and Kirghiz in revenge for the Kizil massacre. He also had Afghan bodyguards protecting him. He was killed in 1934 at Yarkand by Chinese Muslim troops under general Ma Zhancang. All of Abdullah's fighters were killed, but his body was never found, which later gave rise to speculations about his fate.
Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra was an Uighur Emir of the First East Turkestan Republic. He was the younger brother of Muhammad Amin Bughra and Abdullah Bughra. He commanded Uighur and Kirghiz forces during the Battle of Kashgar (1934) against the Chinese Muslim 36th Division. The Chinese Muslims were loyal to the Republic of China government and wanted to crush the Turkic Muslim Uighurs and Kirghiz in revenge for the Kizil massacre, in which Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra had taken part. He was killed on April 16, 1934, at Yangi Hissar by Chinese Muslim troops under generals Ma Zhancang and Ma Fuyuan. All of Nur Ahmad Jan's 2,500 Uighur and Kirghiz fighters were exterminated by the 10,000 strong Chinese Muslim army.
Timur Beg, also known as Timur Sijan, was a Uighur rebel military leader in Xinjiang in 1933. He was involved in the 1933 Battle of Kashgar and participated before in Turpan Rebellion (1932). He associated with the Turkic nationalist Young Kashgar Party and appointed himself as "Timur Shah". He and other Uighurs like the Bughra brothers wanted to secede from China. In August 1933 his troops were attacked by the Chinese Muslim 36th Division of the National Revolutionary Army under General Ma Zhancang. Timur was shot and killed in Kashgar.
The Battle of Tutong of 1934 occurred when Gen. Ma Zhongying's Chinese Muslim 36th Division was attacked by the Soviet Red Army on the banks of the frozen Tutung River. The battle took place over several days, and Soviet bombers used mustard gas. At one point the Chinese Muslim troops dressed up in sheepskins for camouflage in the snow, and stormed Soviet machine-gun posts with curved swords at a short range and defeated a Soviet pincer attack. Casualties were getting heavy on both sides before Ma Zhongying ordered a retreat.
Yulbars Khan, courtesy name Jingfu (景福), was a Uyghur chieftain and Kuomintang general during the Chinese Civil War. He entered the service in the Kumul Khanate of Muhammad Khan of Kumul and later his son Maksud Shah. He served as an advisor at the court, until when Maksud died in March 1930, governor Jin Shuren abolished the khanate. Yulbars then conspired with Khoja Niyaz and Ma Zhongying to overthrow Jin in the Kumul Rebellion. According to some people, Ma restrained Yulbars from traveling to Nanking to ask the Kuomintang for help, Ma earlier had an agreement with the Kuomintang that if he seized Xinjiang, he would be recognized by the Kuomintang as its leader.
Ma Zhancang was a Hui Chinese Muslim general of the New 36th Division, who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. At the Battle of Kashgar (1933), he repulsed an attack of Uighurs led by the Syrian Arab Tawfiq Bay, wounding Tawfiq. He fought against Kirghiz and Uighur rebels and destroyed the First East Turkestan Republic after defeating Uighur and Kirghiz fighters at Kashgar, the Battle of Yarkand and the Battle of Yangi Hissar in 1934. He killed the Uighur leaders Timur Beg, Abdullah Bughra and Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra.
The Battle of Yangi Hissar was a confrontation that took place during the Xinjiang Wars. In April 1934 Gen. Ma Zhancang led the New 36th Division in an attack on Uighur forces at Yangi Hissar, wiping out the entire Uighur force of 500 and killing their leader, Emir Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra.
Ma Fuyuan was a Chinese Muslim general of the New 36th Division, who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. He was present with Ma Zhongying, Ma Shih-ming, Ma Shih-lu, and Ma Ho-ying during a meeting with Yulbars Khan. He fought against Uighur and Kirghiz rebels of the First East Turkestan Republic and against the pro-Soviet Uighur Khoja Niyaz at Aksu, driving Khoja Niyaz to Kashgar. He and General Ma Zhancang destroyed the First East Turkestan Republic after defeating Uighur and Kirghiz fighters at the Battle of Kashgar (1934), Battle of Yarkand, and Battle of Yangi Hissar Several British citizens at the British consulate were killed by the new 36th division. After entering Kashgar, Ma publicly proclaimed his allegiance to the Republic of China government in Nanjing and announced that Ma Shaowu was reappointed as the Taoyin of Kashgar.
Tawfiq Bay, or Sayyid Ahmad Tawfiq Bay Sharif Efendi, was a Syrian Arab traveler who had been in the service of King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia, eventually traveling to Xinjiang, Republic of China, in 1932. He was deported by the Chinese Muslim Daotai Ma Shaowu. On August 26 he arrived at Kashgar oases. He joined the Uighur and Kirghiz Turkic Muslim fighters of the First East Turkestan Republic, who were fighting against the Chinese Muslim forces of the 36th Division, who were loyal to the Republic of China government. Tawfiq was a Pan Islamist.
Pai Tzu-li was a Chinese Muslim general of the 36th Division, who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. He was the secretary to Ma Zhongying and his age was estimated to be about 40. He was then Chief of Staff to General Ma Hushan and persuaded him to attack Kashgar in 1937.
Ma Sheng-kuei was a Chinese Muslim general of the 36th Division, who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. His grew up in Gansu and Shaanxi in "bad company". Ma practiced banditry was noted for torturing his victims in Ningxia. He joined Ma Zhongying in 1933, and was appointed commander of the Tungan 2nd brigade at Khotan. His troops seized the Fayzabad-Maral-Bashi area. Facing the Soviet Red Army and Sheng Shicai's provincial troops, he defected while at Fazayabad and joined the forces of Sheng Shicai, turning against Ma Hushan's forces at Kashgar. Later Ma was stationed in Khotan and it is thought that he went back to Gansu. British diplomatic say he possibly received bribes from Sheng to join Sheng's forces.
Su Chin-shou was a Chinese Muslim general of the 36th Division, who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. He was the Chief of Staff of General Ma Zhancang and was appointed as one of the two tao-yins of Kashgar in May, 1933. He vacated the old city Yamen to join Ma Zhancang in the New City since his fellow Chinese Muslims were massacred at the Kizil massacre.
Ma Ju-lung was a Chinese Muslim general of the 36th Division, who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. He commanded the 1st Brigade.
The Kumul Rebellion was a rebellion of Kumulik Uyghurs from 1931 to 1934 who conspired with Hui Chinese Muslim Gen. Ma Zhongying to overthrow Jin Shuren, governor of Xinjiang. The Kumul Uyghurs were loyalists of the Kumul Khanate and wanted to restore the heir to the Khanate and overthrow Jin. The Kuomintang wanted Jin removed because of his ties to the Soviet Union, so it approved of the operation while pretending to acknowledge Jin as governor. The rebellion then catapulted into large-scale fighting as Khotanlik Uyghur rebels in southern Xinjiang started a separate rebellion for independence in collusion with Kirghiz rebels. Various groups rebelled, and were not united. The main part of the war was waged by Ma Zhongying against the Xinjiang government. He was supported by Chiang Kai-shek, the Premier of China, who secretly agreed to let Ma seize Xinjiang.
Ma Hu-shan was a Hui warlord and the brother-in-law and follower of Ma Chung-ying, a Ma Clique warlord. He ruled over an area of Southern Xinjiang, nicknamed Tunganistan by Westerners, from 1934 to 1937.
Ma Zhongying, also Ma Chung-ying, nickname Commander Ga, was a Hui Chinese Muslim warlord during the Warlord era of China. His birth name was Ma Buying. Ma was a warlord of Gansu Province in China during the 1930s. His alliance with the Kuomintang (KMT) brought his predominantly Chinese Muslim troops under the control of the KMT as the New 36th Division with Ma Zhongying as its commander. He was ordered to overthrow Jin Shuren, the governor of Xinjiang. After several victories over provincial and White Russian forces, he attempted to expand his territory into southern Xinjiang by launching campaigns from his power base in Gansu, but was stopped by Xinjiang warlord Sheng Shicai with Soviet support in 1934.