African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa, by Michael A. Gomez, focuses on the regions surrounding the Middle Niger Valley. It can be thought of as tracing the rise and fall of empire as a form of local political organization in West Africa, culminating in the Songhay Empire; thus it primarily covers the millennium from the mid-sixth century to 1591 CE, when Songhay came under Moroccan rule. It has been particularly noted for using a wide range of non-European sources, particularly Arabic-language material, to develop a non-Eurocentric account of medieval West African history.
The book was the subject of the first "review round table" to be published by The American Historical Review,[1] in which four different reviews of the book were published in the same volume,[2][3][4][5] along with a response from the author.[6] Another round table discussing the book was held during the November 2019 African Studies Association conference, where discussants were Bruce Hall, Chouki El Hamel, Ousmane Kane and Jan Jansen; the Association awarded the book the ASA Best Book Prize in the same year.[7] The book also won the 2019 American Historical Association Martin A. Klein Prize in African History.[8]
Summary
The book comprises fourteen chapters, plus a prologue and epilogue.[9]
Part I. Early Sahel and Savannah
Geographical map of the West Sudanian savannaThe Ghana Empire at its greatest extent
Chapter 1, "The Middle Niger in Pre-antiquity and Global Context", argues that the academic discipline of World History has overlooked Africa; the chapter instead presents the Middle Niger region as one whose history is an important component of the medieval World System through its interactions with North Africa and the Middle East.[10][11]
Concisely surveying prehistory back to around 7000 BCE,[10] the chapter presents the region "as an archetypical riverain geopolitical core for the complex panoply of events to follow",[11] and takes its story to the emergence of the Ghana Empire around 300 CE.[11]
Chapter 2, "Early Gao", challenges an existing grand narrative that has presented a succession of three empires: Ghana, Mali and Songhay. While agreeing with much past research on Gao,[7] Gomez argues that the Gao Empire was more important than researchers have recognised,[7][9] that Gao was West Africa's first city-state,[2] and that it provided the model for the Ghana Empire.[12] The chapter focuses on archaeological evidence (alongside the writing of al-Yaʾqūbī),[2] and uses the settlement of Jenne-Jeno as a case-study from the geographical heartland of the Middle Niger for tracing trade networks and political links between the Sahel, the Savannah, and the Middle East.[13][11]
Chapter 3, "The Kingdoms of Ghana: Reform Along the Senegal River", positions Ghana not as an empire but as one strong kingdom with tributary kingdoms.[2] It brings written sources to the fore, and argues that this dominion was probably integrated into the societies and economies of the Mediterranean basin already in the early Middle Ages. Gomez argues that the emergence of the Almoravid dynasty, their eleventh-century conquest of northern part of Africa's Atlantic coast, and the rise of the state of Takrur are indicative of a wave of Sunni, fundamentalist Islam in the Middle Niger. A traditional dominance of gold as a medium of trade persisted in the west of the empire, but the east saw the emergence of a major trade in slaves by a now Muslim Sahelian elite, partly via Kanem and the Fezzan.[9][11]
Chapter 4, "Slavery and Race Imagined in Bilād as-Sūdān", "situates West Africa within the wider context of racial thought, both within the region and externally, and of regional slavery".[9] The term Bilād al-Sūdān, literally "land of the Blacks", that is sub-Saharan Black people, was being used in Arabic, and associated with the export of slaves to the Arab world, from the earliest Arabic sources, dating from no later than the ninth century CE. However, early evidence associates this human trafficking with the Kanem–Bornu Empire focused on Lake Chad rather than the Gao or Ghana empires. Gomez positions the eleventh century as a turning point in the identity of what in Arabic was called Bilād al-Sūdān (literally "land of the Blacks"), and in Arabic conceptions of race and its relationship with slavery.[7] Gomez defines race for his purposes as "the culturally orchestrated, socially sanctioned disaggregation and reformulation of the human species into broad, hierarchical categories reflecting purported respective levels of capacity, propensity, and beauty, and in ways often tethered to phenotypic expression".[7] Gomez contends that the rise of trans-Saharan trade was accompanied by a concomitant process associating the Sūdān ever more closely with slaves, arguing that the notion of Bilād al-Sūdān was a "racialization of space".[7]
Part II. Imperial Mali
The territorial extent of the Mali Empire c.1350
This part of the book examines the development of the Mali Empire, viewed by Gomez as an urban empire that went on to conquer neighbouring regions.[13] Gomez "analyzes the relationship between central authority and provinces, emerging relationships with Islam, social transformations among the freeborn, caste groups and slaves, and new gender dynamics. He suggests that these elements became the backbone of 'a model of statecraft that was both hierarchical and evolving'".[13]
Chapter 5, "The Meanings of Sunjata and the Dawn of Imperial Mali", focuses on Mali's legendary dynastic founder Sunjata. The chapter marks the entry of oral-derived sources into the study,[2] relying to a significant extent on the oral-derived Epic of Sunjata.[11]
Chapter 6, "Mansā Mūsā and Global Mali", focuses on Mansā Mūsā and his famous pilgrimage to Mecca, which generated an extensive body of primary sources commenting on Mali from outside that empire, not least by Ibn Khaldūn.[11] Gomez positions this as the moment when Mali "went global".[2]
Chapter 7, "Intrigue, Islam, and Ibn Baṭṭūṭa", contemplates the eyewitness account of Mali by Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, and in particular the workings of dynastic succession and elite legitimation within the Mande community of Mali. Gomez argues that both Islam and slavery became progressively more embedded in imperial Mali's culture and economy, facilitated by the introduction of cowrie currency.[11]
Part III. Imperial Songhay
The territorial extent of the Songhai Empire c.1500
Chapter 8, "Sunni ʿAlī and the Reinvention of Songhay", explores the rise of Songhay, and particularly the violence and terror of Sunni ʿAlī, its founder.[11] It argues that key economic and political structures of the Mali Empire were perpetuated by Songhay, with Gao re-emerging as a political centre,[13] yet that Sunni ʿAlī was "a regionalist who had little or no interest in the international links courted by the likes of Mansā Mūsā".[9]
Chapter 9, "The Sunni and the Scholars: A Tale of Revenge", focuses on the Arabic-language West-African writing which constitutes the key source material for Songhay rests, and the Muslim holy men who created it.[11] This chapter analysis of two of Gomez's key primary sources, the West-African chronicles Tārīkh al-Sūdān (c. 1652, by ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn ʿImrān al-Saʾdī) and Taʾrīkh al-fattāsh (c. 1519–1665, attributed to Maḥmūd Kaʾti), which focus on the rise and fall of imperial Songhay.
Chapter 10, "Renaissance: The Age of Askia al-Ḥājj Muḥammad", focuses on the Songhay Empire at its height. According to Amir Syed, Gomez argues that whereas Sunni ʿAlī "'would embark upon a strategy of attacking one community of scholars associated with his political nemesis, while embracing an alternative group of more neutral elites'", Askia al-Ḥājj Muḥammad was part of a "'renaissance' that reestablished the importance of urban centers, and 'reconnections with polities and luminaries in the central Islamic lands'".[13] Gomez argues that during this period people began to identify ethnically with the Songhay state over other group identities".[11]
Chapter 11, "Of Clerics and Concubines", revises previous readings of well known primary sources to emphasise the importance of holy men of Mori Koyra at the expense of Jenne and Timbuktu, a reading of the competing interests of religion, politics, and commerce that emphasises the power of the state and of spirituality at the expense of the learned clerisy.[11][13] The chapter explores the concubinage practices of the elite and the role of the increasingly large number of eunuchs in imperial service.[11]
Part IV. Le dernier de l'empire
Chapter 12, "Of Fitnas and Fratricide: The Nadir of Imperial Songhay" focuses on the twenty years of civil strife and chaos following the toppling of Askia al-Ḥājj Muḥammad's reign.[11][13]
Chapter 13, "Surfeit and Stability: The Era of Askia Dāwūd", focuses on the last successful ruler of Songhay, Askia Dāwūd, who reigned for thirty-four years. In the summary of Amir Syed,
while this ruler brought a modicum of peace, Gomez also suggests that he significantly expanded domestic slavery (334). He argues that even though slavery was significant throughout West African history, it is only under Askia Dāwūd that Songhay became a 'slave society in every sense of the concept' (354). Here Gomez details the transfiguration of social relationship and power of slave holders over slaves. This intensification of slavery, however, also created space for servile groups close to ruling elites to gain and wield significant power (350–351).[13]
Chapter 14, "The Rending Asunder: Dominion's End", concludes Gomez's chronological history with the Moroccan invasion of Songhay in 1591 and the associated internal divisions within Songhay. Gomez positions the collapse of the empire as the end of a millennium-long period of empire in West Africa.[11][13]
The reviewer Ousmane Kane noted "the absence of a conclusion. [...] The fourteenth and last chapters of the book address the collapse of the Songhay Empire following the Saadian invasion. An unexpected epilogue of three pages or so starts with a discussion of the Malian crisis of 2012, without a clear indication of how this is connected to a history of empires ending with the collapse of the Songhay Empire".[3]
Reception
Surveying responses to the book, Hadrien Collet found that "il est possible d’observer deux tendances globalement parallèles quant à la réception du livre. D’un côté, le milieu des chercheurs spécialistes du Moyen Âge africain s’est montré assez sévère, d’un autre côté, la critique historienne états-unienne, africaniste ou plus généraliste, a salué un livre nécessaire et indispensable" ("it is possible to observe two generally parallel trends in the reception of the book. On the one hand, the community of researchers specializing in the African Middle Ages has been quite severe; on the other, American, Africanist, and more generalist historical criticism has praised a necessary and indispensable book").[7] Collet found the book unusual in presenting a grand narrative for a large region over a long period, despite the extremely patchy evidence, an approach which he thought perhaps inevitably led to overlooking some recent secondary literature and subtleties of source criticism;[7][14] Georgi Asatryan even compared the book's approach to Edward Gibbon's The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.[10] Collet noted, however, that "le livre est exigeant, écrit dans un langage châtié, voire parfois abstrait" ("the book is demanding, written in sophisticated, sometimes indeed abstract, language").[7]
A key criticism from specialists was what they viewed as Gomez's insufficiently rigorous source criticism, particularly regarding the Taʾrīkh al-fattāsh, and cursory use of epigraphic evidence,[13][4][5] concerns which prompted the main part of Gomez's response to the American Historial Review coverage of the book.[6]
Reviewers also noted the limitations of the book's scope. Adam Simmons observed that "perhaps inevitably for a book that forms only about 60 per cent of what Gomez intended to be a two-volume work (p. vii), the book does omit some significant material. While it does not claim to be an imperial history ‘of’ West Africa, readers should be aware that its focus largely excludes expansive and specialised discussion of the surrounding regions of the Middle Niger Valley—unless seen from the viewpoint of a Middle Niger polity".[9] The scope of the study is political, with relatively little attention to religion as such[13] or to art.[15]
Ghislaine Lydon found Gomez's emphasis on women one of the work's most important historiographical contributions.[2]
Mansa Musa was the ninth Mansa of the Mali Empire, which reached its territorial peak during his reign. Musa's reign is often regarded as the zenith of Mali's power and prestige.
The Mali Empire was an empire in West Africa from c. 1226 to 1670. The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita and became renowned for the wealth of its rulers, especially Mansa Musa. At its peak, Mali was the largest empire in West Africa, widely influencing the culture of the region through the spread of its language, laws, and customs.
The Songhai Empire was a state located in the western part of the Sahel during the 15th and 16th centuries. At its peak, it was one of the largest African empires in history. The state is known by its historiographical name, derived from its largest ethnic group and ruling elite, the Songhai people. Sonni Ali established Gao as the empire's capital, although a Songhai state had existed in and around Gao since the 11th century. Other important cities in the kingdom were Timbuktu and Djenné, where urban-centred trade flourished; they were conquered in 1468 and 1475, respectively. Initially, the Songhai Empire was ruled by the Sonni dynasty, but it was later replaced by the Askia dynasty (1493–1591).
The Songhai people are an ethnolinguistic group in West Africa who speak the various Songhai languages. Their history and lingua franca is linked to the Songhai Empire which dominated the western Sahel in the 15th and 16th century. Predominantly adherents of Islam, the Songhai are primarily located in Niger and Mali within the Western Sudanic region. Historically, the term "Songhai" did not denote an ethnic or linguistic identity but referred to the ruling caste of the Songhay Empire known as the Songhaiborai. However, the correct term used to refer to this group of people collectively by the natives is "Ayneha". Although some Speakers in Mali have also adopted the name Songhay as an ethnic designation, other Songhay-speaking groups identify themselves by other ethnic terms such as Zarma or Isawaghen. The dialect of Koyraboro Senni spoken in Gao is unintelligible to speakers of the Zarma dialect of Niger, according to at least one report. The Songhay languages are commonly taken to be Nilo-Saharan but this classification remains controversial: Dimmendaal (2008) believes that for now it is best considered an independent language family.
Askia Muhammad I (1443–1538), born Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al-Turi or Muhammad Ture, was the first ruler of the Askia dynasty of the Songhai Empire, reigning from 1493 to 1528. He is also known as Askia the Great, and his name in modern Songhai is Mamar Kassey. Askia Muhammad strengthened his empire and made it the largest empire in West Africa's history. At its peak under his reign, the Songhai Empire encompassed the Hausa states as far as Kano and much of the territory that had belonged to the Songhai empire in the east. His policies resulted in a rapid expansion of trade with Europe and Asia, the creation of many schools, and the establishment of Islam as an integral part of the empire.
Sunni Ali, also known as Si Ali, Sunni Ali Ber, reigned from about 1464 to 1492 as the 15th ruler of the Sunni dynasty of the Songhai Empire. He transformed the relatively small state into an empire by conquering Timbuktu, Massina, the Inner Niger Delta, and Djenne.
Gao, or Gawgaw/Kawkaw, is a city in Mali and the capital of the Gao Region. The city is located on the River Niger, 320 km (200 mi) east-southeast of Timbuktu on the left bank at the junction with the Tilemsi valley.
Khalifa was a 13th-century Mansa of the Mali Empire mentioned by the medieval Arab scholar Ibn Khaldun. All that is known of Khalifa's life comes from a brief mention in Ibn Khaldun's Kitāb al-ʻIbar:
[Mārī Jāṭa] ruled for 25 years, according to what they relate, and when he died his son Mansā Walī ruled after him...His brother Wātī ruled after him and then a third brother, Khalīfa. Khalīfa was insane and devoted to archery and used to shoot arrows at his people and kill them wantonly so they rose against him and killed him. He was succeeded by a sibṭ [son of a daughter] of Mārī Jāṭa, called Abū Bakr, who was the son of his daughter.
Mansa Sandaki or Sandaki Mari Djata, also known as Sandiki or Santigi, was a mansa of the Mali Empire from 1389 to 1390.
The Battle of Tondibi was the decisive confrontation in the 16th-century invasion of the Songhai Empire by the army of the Saadi dynasty in Morocco. The Moroccan forces under Judar Pasha defeated the Songhai under Askia Ishaq II, guaranteeing the empire's downfall.
Askia Ishaq II, also known as Askia Isḥāq Zughrānī, was the ruler of the Songhai Empire from 1588 to 1591. He commanded the Songhai force at the Battle of Tondibi, where he was defeated by Saadian forces from Morocco who subsequently destroyed the empire.
Askia Mohammad Benkan, also Askiya Muhammad Bonkana Kirya, was the third ruler of the Songhai Empire from 1531 to 1537.
The Zarma people are an ethnic group predominantly found in westernmost Niger. They are also found in significant numbers in the adjacent areas of Nigeria and Benin, along with smaller numbers in Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, and Sudan. In Niger, the Zarma are often considered by outsiders to be of the same ethnicity as the neighboring Songhaiborai, although the two groups claim differences, having different histories and speaking different dialects. They are sometimes lumped together as the Zarma-Songhay or Songhay-Zarma.
Mohammed Bagayogo Es Sudane Al Wangari Al Timbukti was an eminent scholar from Timbuktu, Mali. Baghayogho originated from among the Juula people, who are a Mande ethnic group composed of merchants and scholars.
The Sonni dynasty, Sunni dynasty or Si dynasty was a dynasty of rulers of the Songhai Empire of medieval West Africa. The origins of the dynasty are shrouded in legend and debated by historians. The last ruler, Sonni Baru, ruled until 1493 when the throne was usurped by the Askiya Muhammad I, the founder of the Askiya dynasty.
Askia Ishaq I, also known as Ishaq Ber or Ishaq Kadibini, was the ruler of the Songhai Empire from 1539 to 1549, elected Askia following the death of Askia Isma'il. He was the fifth ruler of the Askiya dynasty.
The Gao Empire was a powerful kingdom that ruled the Niger bend from approximately the 7th century CE until their fall to the Mali Empire in the late 14th century. Ruled by the Za dynasty from the capital of Gao, the empire was an important predecessor of the Songhai Empire.
Askia Ismail was the sixth ruler of the Songhai Empire from 1537 – 1539, and fourth from the Askia dynasty. He was the son of Askia Mohammad I, the founder of the Askia dynasty, and Maryam Daabu, a member of the Malian royal family captured in 1501.
Askia Daoud was the ruler of the Songhai Empire from 1549 to 1582. His rule saw the empire rise to a peak of peace and prosperity following a series of succession disputes and short reigns.
The Songhaiborai are a distinct subgroup within the larger Songhai ethnolinguistic family. Residing predominantly in Niger's Songhai region, Northern Mali, and a minority presence in Burkina Faso. Notably, they trace their lineage to the ruling dynasties of the ancient Songhai Empire.
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