Arikara scouts were enlisted men from the Arikara Nation serving in the U.S. Army at different frontier posts in present-day North Dakota from 1868 to 1881. The enlistment period was six months with re-enlistment possible. Each scout received a uniform, firearm and drew rations. Scout duties ranged from carrying mail between commands to tracking down traditional enemies perceived as hostile by the Army in far ranging military campaigns. Detailed to secure the horses in located enemy camps, the scouts were often the first to engage in battle. The Arikara took part when the Army protected survey crews in the Yellowstone area in the early 1870s. They participated in the Great Sioux War of 1876 and developed into Colonel George Armstrong Custer's "… most loyal and permanent scouts …".[1]:132
Nearly 150 Arikara enlisted at different times from 1868 until the end of the Indian Wars in the area. They served "bravely and honorably".[2]:13 The experience of the scouts motivates some present-day Arikara people to carry on the tradition and enter military service.[2]:21
There are abundant historical examples of Native Americans joining with whites to fight against other tribes.[5]:11–24 On the northern plains, 700 Yankton, Yanktonai and Lakota people were the first to aid the U.S. Army in an attack on two adjoining Arikara villages in South Dakota in 1823.[6]:54[7]:78–79 In 1868, Osage scouts found Cheyenne chief Black Kettle's camp, leading to the Battle of Washita River.[5]:61
To commanders of the frontier Army, the need for native scouts with special skills not easily found among ordinary soldiers was pressing.[5]:59 On August 1, 1866, the "Act to increase and fix the Military Peace Establishment of the United States" came into force, and the Army could now legally enlist a certain number of native scouts, but no more than 1,000 nationwide at any time, as long as needed.[5]:44
Enlistment and the life at the garrisons
On May, 1868, the first Arikara enlisted at Fort Stevenson, to duplicate the success of the Pawnee scouts already enlisted in Nebraska.[5]:48 All recruits came from the tribal police force of chief White Shield.[8]:44 Initially armed with infantry rifles, they soon received Spencer repeating carbines in addition to other equipment. They were paid 40 cents a day for the use of their own horse.[5]:49
Additional members later enlisted at Fort McKeen down river. Strikes Two, Pretty Crow, Elk Tongue and other Arikara made the tour in three days in bull boats.[8]:189 The Army provided clothing including under-clothes, a flannel shirt, footwear and a plumed hat.[8]:45 Some scouts lived with their immediate family at the scout quarters of the garrison.[8]:52 and 190 Arikara like Forked Horn and Black Fox served as cooks for the scout unit.[8]:198 They received pay in the amount of 16 dollars per month disbursed every second month and scouts received an addition 12 dollars per month if they rode their own horse.[8]:46
Service history
At Fort McKeen
Bull Neck and Paint travelled from Like-a-Fishhook Village to Fort McKeen by bull boat and enlisted there. Later, the post was enlarged some miles southward on a flat terrain and renamed Fort Abraham Lincoln. The scouts had their own quarters (marked with blue) at "Fort Lincoln on the hill"
Scouts at Fort McKeen, near the confluence of Heart and Missouri Rivers, fought the Lakota in 1872. Although the latter had agreed "not to attack any persons" after the signing of the Fort Laramie treaty of 1868.[9]:1002 On August 26, more than 100 Sioux attacked seven soldiers and two scouts outside the fort and the Arikara there were killed.[5]:49 The scouts were again involved in fights with the Lakota near the garrison on October 2, October 14 (with eight scouts taking part)[10]:37 and November 3,[11]:62 and 63 with the apparent primary target being the Arikara scouts themselves.[2]:14 Due to the heavy losses, some scouts left the service.[2]:14 However, Arikara second chief Son of the Star still encouraged the men to enlist.[8]:52[2]:14
Protecting surveying crews
Arikara scouts formed part of the forces assigned to protect crews surveying a route from Bismarck, North Dakota to Bozeman, Montana for the Northern Pacific Railway in 1873. The Dakota had attacked crew members and soldiers the year prior,[12]:11,13–14[11]:61 despite treaty provisions stipulating that they would allow rail construction "not passing over their reservation".[9]:1002
Bloody Knife served as "scout and guide"[13]:239 to the leader of the 7th Cavalry Regiment, George A. Custer. Bloody Knife took part in the defense, when the Cavalry came under attack in U.S. territory north of the Yellowstone[9]:1008–1011 near the mouth of the Tongue on August 4.[13]:239 Again on August 11, the Army and the scouts were attacked by hundreds of Lakota, with the tribesmen shouting at one another through breaks in rifle fire.[14]:533
Black Hills Expedition, 1874
In the summer of 1874, Arikara scouts guided an exploring and gold seeking[15]:11 expedition from Fort Abraham Lincoln (formerly Fort McKeen, moved further to the south) to the Black Hills in the Great Sioux Reservation. Because the Black Hills are considered sacred to the Lakota, and were barred from white encroachment by treaty, many foresaw a Lakota attempt to halt the expedition.[16]:85 Accordingly, it was protected by both Infantry and Cavalry. George A. Custer was in command.[16]:80
Bloody Knife, Custer and Captain William Ludlow with a killed bear. All three claimed to have shot it. Custer received credit
The expedition was delayed from the outset. News reached Fort Abraham Lincoln of a large Lakota war party on its way to attack Like-a-Fishhook Village almost 100 miles outside the Great Sioux Reservation, and General Philip Sheridan made stopping this a priority. Although he ordered Custer to protect the Arikara "same as white settlers",[1]:133 the Lakota attacked on June 13 and killed five men along with the Mandan Foolish Head.[1]:133[17]:39 The later U.S. scout Running Wolf gives the names of the killed Arikara as Bear-Turning, Little Crow, Standing Bear, Black Shirt and the former U.S. scout Bear-Going-in-Woods.[8]:205
The expedition set off with a number of young Santee Sioux serving as scouts beside the Arikara, and Bloody Knife along with Lean Bear taking lead roles. Some of the 22 members in the scout group, as recalled by Strikes Two and Bear's Belly, were Enemy Heart, Young Hawk, Goose and Red Horse.[8]:163 The scouts rode ahead of the columns and guarded their flanks, so that they were "covering much country".[16]:88
One morning the Arikara discovered a small hunting camp of Oglala Lakota in the Black Hills. All the Arikara scouts rode up and struck a single man in the village with their horse whip. Cautiously, a few returning hunters visited the camp of the whites. Upon their return, a mounted Lakota tried to take a Santee scout's firearm, but failed and fled, with he or his horse hit by a shot.[8]:168[16]:93 Neither the hunter nor the fleeing camp was overtaken by the pursuing Arikara. An old Lakota was held captive for a few days and then released.[16]:95 Accounts of these events differ to some degree.[8]:167–168[16]:92–95
The later Indian enthusiast George Bird Grinnell was invited to join the Black Hills expedition as a collector of birds and fossils. Grinnell rode together with Luther H. North, brother to the leader of the Pawnee scouts. "Lute talked Pawnee fluently, and this was a password to the good graces of all the Rees [Arikara]."[16]:86 Once, a scout went a long way round to offer Grinnell and North water,[16]:90 and when in camp, some scouts came to watch Grinnell skinning the bird specimens he had collected, and discuss the day's events.[16]:103
In 1876, the second chief Son of the Star informed a number of Arikara in the Fort Berthold Indian Reservation about an expedition against some Sioux commanded by "Long Hair" or Custer. The father of Young Hawk, Forked Horn, enlisted immediately and said his son would go as well. Twenty-three additional Arikara enlisted similarly.[8]:50–52 A few days later, Red Bear joined after being scolded by Son of the Star.[8]:52 During the Little Bighorn campaign, the 38 [2]:14Arikara engaged there worked to protect base camps, and were dispatched as riders, forming a part of the front battle line.[18]:89[8]:95–96
The scouts were the first to parade at the departure from Fort Abraham Lincoln.[8]:59 On the way westward to the Yellowstone, scouts on high hills guarded the camp throughout the night, while those in camp were always near the tent of Custer, who would occasionally visit with them.[8]:61 The scouts served as mail carriers between the camp and the fort, and in addition to letters to the soldiers, Red Bear brought moccasins for the scouts from their wives at the garrison.[8]:63 Skilled hunters like Strikes Two and Goose each earned more than 100 dollars during the expedition by selling specific cuts of game at fixed prices to the soldiers.[8]:72
Slowed by the advance of the accompanying wagon train, the Cavalry separated from it at the confluence of the Yellowstone and the Powder rivers.[8]:71 The infantry, along with scouts such as Tall Bear and Black Porcupine, guarded the wagons.[8]:85 Realizing that a large number of Lakota were somewhere in the Yellowstone area, the field scouts received orders to retreat to this position in case of defeat.[8]:74 On June 21, a scouting party returned to camp with news of a large Lakota trail near the Rosebud River. Now trailing the enemy, the scouts sang their sacred songs, seemingly encouraged by Custer. "Custer had a heart like an Indian…" declared Red Star, "…if we ever left out one thing in our ceremonies he always suggested it to us."[8]:77
Six Crow Indian scouts joined the Cavalry for similar reasons as the Arikara. The area ahead was traditionally Crow territory, and acknowledged as such by the Lakota in the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie.[9]:594 Since then, the Lakota had taken over the eastern Crow land,[1]:116[19]:108 including more recently the Bighorn River area[20]:43 in the Crow Indian Reservation, created on May 7, 1868.[9]:1008–1011 By now, they were "… menacing and often raiding the Crow in their reservation camps."[21]:X[19]:106
A reconstruction of an Sign left by the Dakotas on their trail
First sergeant Bobtailed-Bull[18]:68 advanced up the Rosebud on one side of the river with a group of scouts, while Red Bear and Soldier directed another group on the opposite bank.[8]:77 Close behind came the mounted troops. By the end of the day, they came to the place of a recently moved Lakota camp.[8]:78 Signs and drawings left by the Lakota were understood to show Lakota confidence in case of battle.[8]:79 Bull and Red Star, along with other Arikara followed four Crow scouts in an advanced search. Lieutenant Charles Varnum joined as Army leader of the scouts, along with Charley Reynolds.[18]:61 The Crow guided the whole party,[8]:86 being in their own territory.[18]:60
The slower main body rested at the forks of the Rosebud. Custer consulted the remaining scouts and assigned their role in a planned attack to drive away as many enemy horses as possible.[8]:81 The group again mounted and rode throughout the night. During a quick breakfast Bull and Red Star arrived with news of a located enemy camp.[8]:83
Custer followed Red Star to a nearby hill where the Crow scouts had discovered the Lakota camp in the distance.[8]:90 Custer preferred to wait and station his troops around the camp during the night but the Crow convinced Custer that the Lakota were well aware of the presence of the Army and Custer readied his troops for a quick attack. The 22 Arikara present assembled, and the experienced warriors encouraged the young scouts.[8]:93 They rode ahead, found a lone Lakota tipi and counted coup on it. Here they were overtaken by the mounted troops and reproached by Custer for going against his orders to disperse the enemy horses and render them on foot prior to a Cavalry charge.[8]:121
Soldier was born in the start of the 1830s. During a hunting expedition around 1854, he received a chest wound in a battle with the Sioux near present-day Dickinson. He was a long time scout at Fort Stevenson. In 1876, he departed Fort Abraham Lincoln together with the rest of the scouts taking part in the Great Sioux War.
The best mounted scouts followed the fast moving Cavalry on the way to Little Bighorn River.[8]:95 They, along with Little Sioux, Red Bear and 11 scouts crossed the river south of the Lakota camp along with the troops under Major Reno.[8]:85 Red Star, Boy Chief and Strikes Two escaped with 28 Lakota horses.[8]:119
When skirmishing began, both scouts and soldiers dismounted and formed a line. Bloody Knife joined, wearing a black handkerchief with blue stars given him by Custer, and informed Young Hawk and the other scouts that a number of horses had been taken from the enemy.[8]:96 Some were retaken by the Lakota later.[8]:118,120 The fight grew more intense. During a general retreat, a number of Arikara and two Crow took shelter in a thick grove on the east side of the river.[8]:98 Here, Goose was shot in the hand, while the Crow scout White Swan was wounded in both the hand and leg.[8]:99 Lakota attempts to drive the scouts out into the open failed, and Custer's attack further north drew the Lakota away.[8]:100
The scouts left the thicket, and flying a white flag, headed for a hill where they could see the flag of the U.S. troops.[8]:101 They managed to reach Major Marcus Reno's forces, pursued by the returning Lakota. Here they received word that Bob-tailed Bull had been killed.[8]:102 Other scouts reached Reno's troops.[8]:130 A number stayed, while some drove around 40 captured horses towards the depot on the Powder River, as ordered in case of defeat.[8]:131
As night fell, four scouts carrying a copy of the same message tried to break through the ring of Lakota surrounding Reno Hill, but were turned back.[8]:105 About noon the next day, the Lakota broke camp.[8]:106 Shortly after, some went down a ridge west of their abandoned location. Assuming them to be soldiers, Young Hawk and his father rode towards them. The two scouts returned to the hilltop and reported the location of the party. An officer told them, "Now let us go and look for Custer's body."[8]:107
On the battlefield, a soldier directed the scouts to the dead body of an Arikara in a grove, possibly that of Bloody Knife.[8]:113 The body of Little Brave, who had also been killed was never found.[8]:145 Young Hawk led a pony with the wounded Goose on a travois to the steamboat Far West stationed at the mouth of the Little Bighorn River.[8]:114
The first Arikara scouts reached the Infantry camp at the Powder. When they recounted what had happened, all the soldiers doubted them.[8]:155
Some scouts continued carrying mail during the following days,[8]:93,134 and 149 while other worked to locate the scattering Lakota.[8]:145 and 147
In September, General George Crook and his men were in dire need of supplies when they followed the trail of a Lakota camp southward to the Black Hills. Some of the five[22]:51 The Arikara accompanying Crook started on their way to Fort Abraham Lincoln with a message asking for relief, and carried the urgent telegram to its destination in only three days.[15]:159–160
Later
In 1889, the scouts paraded through the city of Bismarck on the 4th of July. They formed the United States Volunteer Indian Scouts in 1912.[2]:19 Despite promises to the contrary, most of them never received a pension.[2]:20 In memory of Custer, the old scouts composed and sang a song on Memorial Day in 1917. Some of the descendants of the scouts still sing the "Custer Song".[2]:21
The Crow, whose autonym is Apsáalooke, also spelled Absaroka, are Native Americans living primarily in southern Montana. Today, the Crow people have a federally recognized tribe, the Crow Tribe of Montana, with an Indian reservation located in the south-central part of the state.
The Battle of the Little Bighorn, known to the Lakota and other Plains Indians as the Battle of the Greasy Grass, and also commonly referred to as Custer's Last Stand, was an armed engagement between combined forces of the Lakota Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes and the 7th Cavalry Regiment of the United States Army. The battle, which resulted in the defeat of U.S. forces, was the most significant action of the Great Sioux War of 1876. It took place on June 25–26, 1876, along the Little Bighorn River in the Crow Indian Reservation in southeastern Montana Territory.
The Cheyenne are an Indigenous people of the Great Plains. Their Cheyenne language belongs to the Algonquian language family. Today, the Cheyenne people are split into two federally recognized nations: the Southern Cheyenne, who are enrolled in the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes in Oklahoma, and the Northern Cheyenne, who are enrolled in the Northern Cheyenne Tribe of the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation in Montana. The Cheyenne comprise two Native American tribes, the Só'taeo'o or Só'taétaneo'o and the Tsétsêhéstâhese. The tribes merged in the early 19th century.
George Armstrong Custer was a United States Army officer and cavalry commander in the American Civil War and the American Indian Wars.
The Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara Nation, also known as the Three Affiliated Tribes, is a Native American Nation resulting from the alliance of the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara peoples, whose native lands ranged across the Missouri River basin extending from present day North Dakota through western Montana and Wyoming.
Red Cloud's War was an armed conflict between an alliance of the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Northern Arapaho peoples against the United States that took place in the Wyoming and Montana territories from 1866 to 1868. The war was fought over control of the western Powder River Country in present north-central Wyoming.
Arikara, also known as Sahnish, Arikaree, Ree, or Hundi, are a tribe of Native Americans in North Dakota. Today, they are enrolled with the Mandan and the Hidatsa as the federally recognized tribe known as the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara Nation.
The Battle of the Rosebud took place on June 17, 1876, in the Montana Territory between the United States Army and its Crow and Shoshoni allies against a force consisting mostly of Lakota Sioux and Northern Cheyenne Indians during the Great Sioux War of 1876. The Cheyenne called it the Battle Where the Girl Saved Her Brother because of an incident during the fight involving Buffalo Calf Road Woman. General George Crook's offensive was stymied by the Indians, led by Crazy Horse, and he awaited reinforcements before resuming the campaign in August.
The Sioux Wars were a series of conflicts between the United States and various subgroups of the Sioux people which occurred in the later half of the 19th century. The earliest conflict came in 1854 when a fight broke out at Fort Laramie in Wyoming, when Sioux warriors killed 31 American soldiers in the Grattan Massacre, and the final came in 1890 during the Ghost Dance War.
The Powder River Expedition of 1865 also known as the Powder River War or Powder River Invasion, was a large and far-flung military operation of the United States Army against the Lakota Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho Indians in Montana Territory and Dakota Territory. Although soldiers destroyed one Arapaho village and established Fort Connor to protect gold miners on the Bozeman Trail, the expedition is considered a failure because it failed to defeat or intimidate the Indians.
Bloody Knife was an American Indian who served as a scout and guide for the U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment. He was the favorite scout of Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer and has been called "perhaps the most famous Native American scout to serve the U.S. Army."
The Hunkpapa are a Native American group, one of the seven council fires of the Lakota tribe. The name Húŋkpapȟa is a Lakota word, meaning "Head of the Circle". By tradition, the Húŋkpapȟa set up their lodges at the entryway to the circle of the Great Council when the Sioux met in convocation. They speak Lakȟóta, one of the three dialects of the Sioux language.
Charles Albert Varnum was a career United States Army officer. He was most noted as the commander of the scouts for George Armstrong Custer in the Little Bighorn Campaign during the Great Sioux War, as well as receiving the Medal of Honor for his actions in a conflict at Drexel Mission following the Wounded Knee Massacre.
The Kidder Fight, of July 2, 1867 refers to a skirmish near what is now Goodland, Kansas involving a detachment of ten enlisted men and an Indian scout of the United States 2nd Cavalry under the command of Second Lieutenant Lyman S. Kidder who were attacked and wiped out by a mixed Lakota and Cheyenne force. Two Lakota, including chief Yellow Horse were also killed. The fight occurred during the period of the Indian Wars on the western plains and was an incident in the campaign known as Hancock's War.
The Great Sioux War of 1876, also known as the Black Hills War, was a series of battles and negotiations that occurred in 1876 and 1877 in an alliance of Lakota Sioux and Northern Cheyenne against the United States. The cause of the war was the desire of the US government to obtain ownership of the Black Hills. Gold had been discovered in the Black Hills, settlers began to encroach onto Native American lands, and the Sioux and the Cheyenne refused to cede ownership. Traditionally, American military and historians place the Lakota at the center of the story, especially because of their numbers, but some Native Americans believe the Cheyenne were the primary target of the American campaign.
Crow Scouts worked with the United States Army in several conflicts, the first in 1876 during the Great Sioux War. Because the Crow Nation was at that time at peace with the United States, the army was able to enlist Crow warriors to help them in their encroachment against the Native Americans with whom they were at war. In 1873, the Crow called for U.S. military actions against the Indigenous people they reported were trespassing into the newly-designated Crow reservation territories.
White Swan (c.1850—1904), or Mee-nah-tsee-us in the Crow language, was one of six Crow Scouts for George Armstrong Custer's 7th Cavalry Regiment during the 1876 campaign against the Sioux and Northern Cheyenne. At the Battle of the Little Bighorn in the Crow Indian Reservation, White Swan went with Major Reno's detachment, and fought alongside the soldiers at the south end of the village. Of the six Crow scouts at the Battle of the Little Bighorn, White Swan stands out because he aggressively sought combat with multiple Sioux and Cheyenne warriors, and he was the only Crow Scout to be wounded in action, suffering severe wounds to his hand/wrist and leg/foot. After being disabled by his wounds, he was taken to Reno's hill entrenchments by Half Yellow Face, the pipe-bearer (leader) of the Crow scouts, which no doubt saved his life.
Half Yellow Face was the leader of the six Crow Scouts for George Armstrong Custer's 7th Cavalry during the 1876 campaign against the Sioux and Northern Cheyenne. Half Yellow Face led the six Crow scouts as Custer advanced up the Rosebud valley and crossed the divide to the Little Bighorn valley, and then as Custer made the fateful decision to attack the large Sioux-Cheyenne camp which precipitated the Battle of the Little Bighorn on June 25, 1876. At this time, the other Crow Scouts witnessed a conversation between Custer and Half Yellow Face. Half Yellow Face made a statement to Custer that was poetically prophetic, at least for Custer: "You and I are going home today by a road we do not know".
The Yellowstone Expedition of 1873 was an expedition of the United States Army in the summer of 1873 in Dakota Territory and Montana Territory, to survey a route for the Northern Pacific Railroad along the Yellowstone River. The expedition was under the overall command of Colonel David S. Stanley, with Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer second in command.
The Battle of Pease Bottom, also called the Battle of the Bighorn River was a conflict between the United States Army and the Sioux on August 11, 1873 along the Yellowstone River opposite the mouth of the Bighorn River near present-day Custer, Montana. The main combatants were units of the 7th U.S. Cavalry under Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer, and Native Americans from the village of the Hunkpapa medicine man, Sitting Bull, many of whom would clash with Custer again approximately three years later at the Battle of the Little Big Horn in the Crow Indian Reservation.
References
1 2 3 4 McGinnis, Anthony (1990): Counting Coup and Cutting Horses. Intertribal Warfare on the Northern Plains, 1738-1889. Evergreen.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 van de Logt, Mark.: Whoever Makes War upon the Rees Will Be Considered Making War upon the 'Great Father': Sanish Military Service on the Northern Great Plains, 1865-1881. Wíčazo Ša Review, Vol. 32, No. 1 (Spring 2017). Pp. 9-28.
↑ Mallory, Gerrick (1886): The Corbusier Winter Counts. Smithsonian Institution. Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 4th Annual Report. 1882-'83. Washington. Pp. 127-146.
↑ Mallory, Gerrick (1886): The Dakota Winter Counts. Smithsonian Institution. Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 4th Annual Report. 1882-'83. Washington. Pp. 89-127.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Dunlay, Thomas W. (1982): Wolves for the Blue Soldiers. Indian Scouts and Auxiliaries with the United States Army, 1860-90. Lincoln and London.
↑ Meyer, Roy W. (1977): The Village Indians of the Upper Missouri. The Mandans, Hidatsas, and Arikaras. Lincoln and London.
↑ Yellow Bird, Loren: Now I Will Speak (Nawah Ti Waako'). A Sahnish Perspective on What the Lewis and Clark Expedition and Others Missed. Wíčazo Ša Review. Vol. 19, No. 1 (Spring 2004), pp. 73-84.
1 2 3 4 5 Kappler, Charles J. (1904): Indian Affairs. Laws and Treaties. Vol. 2. Washington.
↑ Record of Engagements with Hostile Indians within the Military Division of the Missouri, from 1868 to 1882, Lieutenant-General P. H. Sheridan, Commanding. Chicago.
1 2 Webb, George W. (1939): Chronological List of Engagements Between The Regular Army Of The United States And Various Tribes Of Hostile Indians Which Occurred During The Years 1790 to 1898, Inclusive. St. Joseph.
↑ Robertson, Francis B.: We Are Going to Have a Big Sioux War. Colonel David S. Stanley's Yellowstone Expedition, 1872. Montana, the Magazine of Western History. Vol. 34, No. 4 (Autumn 1984). Pp. 2-15.
1 2 Custer, Elizabeth B. (1968): "Boots and Saddles" or, Life in Dakota with General Custer. Norman.
↑ Howe, George Frederick: Expedition to the Yellowstone River in 1873: Letters of a Young Cavalry Officer. The Mississippi Valley Historical Review. Vol. 39, No. 3, (Dec. 1952). Pp. 519-534.
1 2 Hedren, Paul L. (1988): Fort Laramie in 1876. Lincoln and London
Reiger, John F. (Ed.) (1985): The Passing of the Great West. Selected Papers of George Bird Grinnell. Norman.
↑ Howard, James H.: Butterfly's Mandan Wintercount: 1833-1876. Ethnohistory. Vol. 7. (Winter 1960): pp. 28-43.
1 2 3 4 Varnum, Charles A. (1987): Custer's Chief of Scouts. The Reminiscences of Charles A. Varnum. Including his Testimony at the Reno Court of Inquiry. Lincoln.
1 2 Hoxie, Frederick E. (1995): Parading Through History. The making of the Crow Nation in America, 1805-1935. Cambridge.
↑ Lubetkin, John M.: The Forgotten Yellowstone Expedition Surveying Expeditions of 1871. W. Milnor Roberts and the Northern Pacific Railroad in Montana. Montana. The Magazine of Western History. Vol. 52, No. 4 (Winter 2002). Pp. 32-47.
↑ Medicine-Crow, Joseph (1939): The Effects of European Culture Contacts upon the Economic, Social, and Religious Life of the Crow Indians. A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the Department of Anthropology, University of Southern California.
↑ Porter, Joseph C. (1986): Paper Medicine Man. John Gregory Bourke and His American West. Norman and London.
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