The Arioi or Areoi were a secret religious order of the Society Islands, particularly the island of Tahiti, with a hierarchical structure, esoteric salvation doctrine and cultish and cultural functions. They included both men and women of all social strata, though men predominated. The Arioi principally venerated the war god 'Oro, whom they considered the founder of their order.
In order to understand the comparable societies on other islands of the Polynesian Triangle, it is necessary to understand Polynesian societal order in classical times, i.e. before Europeans made contact with islands. In most of Polynesia, society was divided and structured according to a strict hierarchy comprising several social strata. This division did not always manifest itself the same way, but it can be found in Tahiti, Samoa, Hawaii, the Marquesas Islands, Austral Islands, Cook Islands, and even in the remotest corner of the Polynesian Triangle on Easter Island.
There were in essence three castes on the Society Islands:
The system of power on the Society Islands included characteristics of both medieval European feudalism as well as the Hindu caste system.
The structure of the order of the Arioi was a mirror image of Tahiti's hierarchical society. There were several ranks; Moerenhout describes eight ranks which could be reached through initiation. [1] Admission into the orders was relatively simple at first; thus, admission was associated with increasingly difficult requirements. Theoretically, all levels of all social groups were open to everyone, but in practice the highest classes of the Arioi were reserved for the highest classes of the nobility. The upper classes were occupied by priests, mostly the sons and daughters of the noble families in the upper classes, which guaranteed that the Arioi built up strong support for the absolutist ruling family.
Each of the Society Islands had its own Arioi group which was associated with a particular place of worship (marae), and its own leaders of the order. The absolute highest leader was one of the leaders of the order in Raiatea, since the Taputapu-Atea marae, the holiest of all the worship platforms of Polynesia, was located there.
There are special houses on the Society Islands in which the Arioi lived, in which they got together and which served as guest houses for visits by Arioi from other islands. 27 Arioi houses have been documented in Tahiti. [2]
Members of all social strata could be admitted into the association. Anyone who wanted to become a member had to be possessed by Oro. This was demonstrated by pushing one's way into a meeting of the Arioi in a trance state. If the Arioi considered the candidate to be suitable, he was admitted. The most important criteria for this were physical beauty, knowledge of religious texts, and skill in recitation, dance and pantomime.
With the initiation, the new member earned the right to wear a bast fiber tapa in certain colors and with certain tattoos, beginning with a small ring-shaped pattern on the ankle. As the member ascended into the upper classes, the tattoos became increasingly large and ornate.
Ruling chiefs had no further to climb and did not have to undergo the initiation and laborious ascent.
The Arioi lived in sexual freedom before marriage, which therefore was repulsive to the missionaries that arrived in the 19th century. After the establishment of a matrimonial bond, though, promiscuity stopped. Arioi unions had to remain childless in a society whose religion was fundamentally characterized by fertility rituals, which was something of a contradiction. If a child was expected, he was aborted or killed immediately after birth. The principal reason for killing the children was the endeavor to prevent people in the upper classes from having children with people in the lower classes in order to keep the ruling line "pure". Another reason could be found in a particular characteristic of Polynesian society, namely that reputation was passed down the male line, and that a father automatically lost a part of his reputation upon the birth of his first son.
Religious functions in Polynesian society had both religious and political meaning, the latter through displays and pageantry to glorify the ruling family.
Because the reports of the European discoverers and missionaries naturally had to be restricted to publicly observable actions and since taboos excluded outsiders from the rites that took place in the marae, the role the Arioi played in it is not known.
One thing that was publicly observable was the Arioi's involvement in the large celebrations, often lasting for several days. The ariki's reputation depended considerably on the generous distribution of gifts to the people. The products that were delivered by the serfs—usually with great pageantry as part of an extravagantly prepared celebration—were distributed yet again. This served as a means of self-promotion; the more generously a chief behaved, the higher his prestige was. The preparation of dances, dramas, and song for these celebrations was essentially the Arioi's responsibility. Then again, they also profited from the gifts that they gave out and were rewarded with bast fiber tapa as well. The most elaborate celebrations were the visits the Arioi made to other islands. James Cook witnessed one such event in 1774. A fleet of 60 ornately decorated boats, some 50 Arioi in each, departed from Tahiti for a visit to the island of Huahine.
Above all, through, the Arioi were guardians and promoters of tradition. In a society with no writing, it was important to openly preach, protect, and spread religious texts through constant recitation.
The ability of this to relieve tension within the social structure should not be underestimated. The absolutist ruling family of the ariki normally tolerated no dissent whatsoever. However, the Arioi enjoyed a large degree of freedom during their performances to criticize secular and religious leaders in a playful and jocular way.
Portrayals by early European visitors to the Pacific emphasised the erotic aspects of Arioi culture. Reports from missionaries and self-educated travelers such as Forster and Moerenhout reflect the prudish society of the late 18th and 19th centuries. An example of this is the following description of the Arioi from James Cook's journal of his first trip in 1769:
The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica describes them thus: [5]
Fertility rituals played a central role in Polynesian religion. For this reason, any behavior patterns that seemed risqué to the Europeans were closely linked with religious acts.
The Europeans' missionary work on the Society Islands in the first half of the 19th century signified the end of the Arioi. They were bitterly opposed by the missionaries because of their practices, which stood firmly in opposition to Christian teaching.
The end did not come suddenly, however. As a result of partial inclusion of the Christian body of thought, though preserving the traditional Polynesian structuring, the Mamaia group was formed to succeed the Arioi. The name means "rotten fruit" and was applied discriminatorily. The sect originated in Tahiti in 1826. The founders were two native deacons of the London Missionary Society by the name of Teao and Hue. The millenarianistic movement created visionary prophets, who had allegedly experienced theophanies and Marian apparitions, but they also claimed to have been possessed by Oro and Tāne. [6] In 1831, the missionaries succeeded in temporarily driving the Mamaia from Raiatea Island. There were also rebellions on Tahiti in 1832, though they were suppressed in bloody confrontations with the help of the French. In 1833, the Mamaia were banished from Tahiti. After the death of Teao in 1842, the movement died away.
Societies that are somewhat comparable to the Arioi can also be found on other Polynesian and Melanesian islands, for example:
The Cook Islands are named after Captain James Cook, who visited the islands in 1773 and 1777, although Spanish navigator Alvaro de Mendaña was the first European to reach the islands in 1595. The Cook Islands became aligned to the United Kingdom in 1890, largely because of the fear of British residents that France might occupy the islands as it already had Tahiti.
Tahiti is the largest island of the Windward group of the Society Islands in French Polynesia. It is located in the central part of the Pacific Ocean and the nearest major landmass is Australia. Divided into two parts, Tahiti Nui and Tahiti Iti, the island was formed from volcanic activity; it is high and mountainous with surrounding coral reefs. Its population was 189,517 in 2017, making it by far the most populous island in French Polynesia and accounting for 68.7% of its total population; the 2022 Census resulted in a population of 191,779.
In Tahiti and adjacent islands, the term Maohi refers to the ancestors of the Polynesian peoples.
Rarotonga is the largest and most populous of the Cook Islands. The island is volcanic, with an area of 67.39 km2 (26.02 sq mi), and is home to almost 75% of the country's population, with 10,898 of a total population of 15,040. The Cook Islands' Parliament buildings and international airport are on Rarotonga. Rarotonga is a very popular tourist destination with many resorts, hotels and motels. The chief town, Avarua, on the north coast, is the capital of the Cook Islands.
Moʻorea, also spelled Moorea, is a volcanic island in French Polynesia. It is one of the Windward Islands, a group that is part of the Society Islands, 17 kilometres (11 mi) northwest of Tahiti. The name comes from the Tahitian word Moʻoreʻa, meaning "yellow lizard": Moʻo = lizard ; Reʻa = yellow. An older name for the island is ʻAimeho, sometimes spelled ʻAimeo or ʻEimeo. Early Western colonists and voyagers also referred to Moʻorea as York Island or Santo Domingo.
A marae, malaʻe, meʻae or malae is a communal or sacred place that serves religious and social purposes in Polynesian societies. In all these languages, the term also means cleared and free of weeds or trees. Marae generally consist of an area of cleared land roughly rectangular, bordered with stones or wooden posts perhaps with paepae (terraces) which were traditionally used for ceremonial purposes; and in some cases, a central stone ahu or a'u. In the Rapa Nui culture of Easter Island, the term ahu has become a synonym for the whole marae complex.
Pōmare II, was the second king of Tahiti between 1782 and 1821. He was installed by his father Pōmare I at Tarahoi, February 13, 1791. He ruled under regency from 1782 to 1803.
Raiatea or Ra'iatea is the second largest of the Society Islands, after Tahiti, in French Polynesia. The island is widely regarded as the "centre" of the eastern islands in ancient Polynesia and it is likely that the organised migrations to the Hawaiian Islands, New Zealand and other parts of East Polynesia started at Raiatea.
The Austral Islands are the southernmost group of islands in French Polynesia, an overseas country of the French Republic in the South Pacific. Geographically, they consist of two separate archipelagos, namely in the northwest the Tupua'i islands consisting of the Îles Maria, Rimatara, Rūrutu, Tupua'i Island proper and Ra'ivāvae, and in the southeast the Bass Islands composed of the main island of Rapa Iti and the small Marotiri. Inhabitants of the islands are known for their pandanus fiber weaving skills. The islands of Maria and Marotiri are not suitable for sustained habitation. Several of the islands have uninhabited islets or rocks off their coastlines. Austral Islands' population is 6,965 on almost 150 km2 (58 sq mi). The capital of the Austral Islands administrative subdivision is Tupua'i.
Rakahanga is part of the Cook Islands, situated in the central-southern Pacific Ocean. The unspoilt atoll is 1,248 kilometres from the Cook Islands' capital, Rarotonga, and lies 1,111 kilometres south of the equator. Its nearest neighbour is Manihiki which is just 44 kilometres away. Rakahanga's area is 4 square kilometres (1.5 sq mi). Its highest point is approximately 5 metres above sea level. The population was 83 in the 2016 Census of Population & Dwellings. Since 2014 Rakahanga's power has been 100% solar generated. The Rakahanga-Manihiki language differs from Cook Islands Maori.
The Society Islands are an archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean. Politically, they are part of French Polynesia, an overseas country of the French Republic. Geographically, they form part of Polynesia.
An ariki, ꞌariki, aliki, ali‘i, ari'i, aiki or hakaiki, akariki or ‘eiki (Tonga) is or was a member of a hereditary chiefly or noble rank in Polynesia.
ʻOro is a god in Tahiti and Society Islands mythology. The veneration of ʻOro, although practiced in varying intensity among the islands, was a major religion of the Society Islands in the 17th and 18th centuries, especially Tahiti, Tahaa, Moorea, and Raiatea. On Tahiti, ʻOro was the main deity and the god of war. The secret society of Arioi was closely linked because of its rites. On the Marquesas Islands, ʻOro bore the name Mahui.
Makea Takau Ariki (1839–1911) was a sovereign of the Cook Islands. She was the ariki (queen) of the dynasty Makea Nui, one of the three chiefdoms of the tribe Te Au O Tonga on the island of Rarotonga.
Coronations in Oceania are, or were, held in the following countries:
The Kingdom of Bora Bora was established during the early 19th century with the unification of the island of Bora Bora and official recognition by France and the United Kingdom in 1847 through the Jarnac Convention. It was one of a number of independent Polynesian states in the Society Islands, alongside Tahiti, Huahine and Raiatea in the 19th century, which all shared a similar language and culture and whose rulers were interrelated by marriage. Besides Bora Bora, the Kingdom encompassed the islands of Tupai, Maupiti, Maupihaa, Motu One, and Manuae. The Kingdom was finally annexed to France in 1888 and its last queen Teriimaevarua III was replaced by a French vice-resident in 1895.
Teriitaria II or Teri'itari'a II, later known as Pōmare Vahine and Ari'ipaea Vahine, baptized Taaroamaiturai, became Queen of Tahiti when she married King Pōmare II and later, she ruled as Queen of Huahine and Maiao in the Society Islands.
The culture of the Cook Islands reflects the traditions of its fifteen islands as a Polynesian island country, spread over 1,800,000 square kilometres (690,000 sq mi) in the South Pacific Ocean. It is in free association with New Zealand. Its traditions are based on the influences of those who settled the islands over several centuries. Polynesian people from Tahiti settled in the Cook Islands in the 6th century. The Portuguese captain, Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, made the first recorded European landing in the islands in the early 17th century, and well over a hundred years later, in the 18th century, the British navigator, Captain James Cook arrived, giving the islands their current name. Missionaries developed a written language, bringing schools and Christianity to the Cook Islands in the early 19th century. Cook Islands Māori, also known as Māori Kūki 'Āirani or Rarotongan, is the country's official language.
The Franco-Tahitian War or French–Tahitian War (1844–1847) was a conflict between the Kingdom of the French and the Kingdom of Tahiti and its allies in the South Pacific archipelago of the Society Islands in modern-day French Polynesia.
Papeiha was an evangelist of the London Missionary Society. Trained by John Williams, he converted the islands of Aitutaki and Rarotonga in the Cook Islands to Christianity.
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