Asalluhi, also spelled as Asarluhi or Asalluhe, also known as Asaralimnuna, Asaralim, Asalim or Asarnuna was a Mesopotamian god primarily associated with the sphere of incantations and exorcism, commonly operating together with his father Enki. He is likely the same deity as Asar, who was attested starting from the third millennium BCE.
During the Old Babylonian period, Asalluhi gradually became syncretized with Marduk, eventually becoming another name for Marduk.
Name
The name Asalluhi is written phonetically as dasal-lú-ḫi, da-sa-lu-úḫ, da-sa-lú-ḫi or da-sa-al-lú-ḫi.[1] An offering list from Ur III Umma spells the name as dÉ.ŠÁRA-lú-ḫi.[2]
The meaning of Asar remains uncertain.[1] Johandi offers two suggestions, that asar(re) could be a-sar-(re(d)) "swift seed" or a-ari-sar "water impregnating the field plots."[3]dasar is attested in third millennium god lists, personal names and administrative documents, while the name Asalluhi was first attested until the Ur III period.[1] However, the spelling Asalluhi appeared in an incantation against the demon Samana which Finkel dated to the Old Akkadian period. If the dating is right, then Asalluhi was an attested spelling earlier than the Ur III period.[4]
Jacobsen reads lú-ḫi as lú-ḫe, meaning "man-drenching", and thus argues that Asalluhi's name means "man drenching Asal."[5] Lambert proposes that the lú-ḫi element in the name Asalluhi may be a phonetic spelling of luḫe, which the meaning of the root luḫ (purge) would be fitting for Asalluhi’s role in incantations related to exorcism.[1] Johandi offers another explanation that since many of the instructions Enki gives to Asalluhi involves mixing together ingredients, lú-ḫi may have originally been an epithet meaning "the mixer" which eventually connected with the original name Asar to form Asalluhi.[6] lú-ḫi could also have been an ellipsis for lú-ḫe-ĝál/nun, meaning "the one of abundance and plenty."[3]
The Nippur god list from the Old Babylonian period gives Asalluhi another name called Asarag, which could possibly be translated as "the good Asar." This name is unattested elsewhere.[7]
Character and iconography
Asar was already attested in the Third Millennium as part of incantations,[8] albeit playing a minor role.[9]
Asalluhi often appears in incantations in relation to his father Enki. This type of incantation follows the formula where two deities are engaged in a conversation, discussing how to treat the patient. In his studies on incantations, Falkenstein has dubbed it the Marduk-Ea type invocations.[10] However, the name is not very representative of the whole,[10][11] and Cunningham has shown that the formula was attested earlier in the Fāra and Ebla texts, with Enlil taking the role of Ea and Ningirima taking the role of Marduk.[12] Earlier incantations had Asalluhi send a messenger to Enki to seek support, but starting in the Ur III period Asalluhi started to occasionally directly seek out Enki in his temple to ask for support, possibly emphasizing the mediating role of temples instead of messengers.[13]
The general structure of the Asalluhi-Enki dialogues starts with Asalluhi noticing a problem and reporting to his father Enki. Enki assures Asalluhi that he knows everything that he knows, and then proceeds to instruct Asalluhi on the procedures.[14]
Geller argued that during the Old Babylonian period the incantation priest would assume the role of Asalluhi, who would be acting as the messenger for Enki.[15] Johandi notes that such a translation would not make sense for some of the texts,[16] and there is nothing like the first millennium texts where the priests directly claim to be in the image of Asalluhi/Marduk, although the option still remains possible.[17]
Asalluhi also appears in what is commonly termed the legitimation-type formula as per Falkenstein.[18] The priests will legitimize themselves by establishing them as the representative of the gods.[19] As most of the incantations of this type are directed against demons,[19] Enki and his circle feature prominently among them.[18] The priest would claim that the incantation is the incantation of gods such as Asalluhi, while in other texts they would claim that the gods themselves cast the incantation.[20] Asalluhi is claimed to be the one to recite the "incantation of Eridu" in the Old Babylonian period, whereas in earlier periods the role was assumed by the human priest.[21]
Asalluhi also features in consecration incantations, which prepares objects and materials for rituals. In particular, he seems to appear in preparing objects for purification.[22]
Although in hymns Asalluhi's role as an exorcist is not stated,[23] and outside of incantations his connections with magic are doubtful,[24] his role as a divine exorcist was already well established by the Old Babylonian period.[25] It would still seem that in the Asalluhi-Enki formula, Asalluhi functioned as the executor of Enki's orders, and Asalluhi cannot be called an expert, lacking initiative and needing Enki's encouragement.[15][26] In other texts, such as a myth,[27] and incantation texts of other formulas like the legitimation-type,[28][29] though, Asalluhi is described as an exorcist or as the exorcist of the gods.
In the Sumerian Temple Hymns, Asalluhi is described with more aggressive characteristics, listing epithets like "the strong prince", "the hero", and was even described as a leopard and a storm.[30] The other name given to Asalluhi in the hymn, Asaralimnuna can either mean "Asar, the princely bison" or "Asar, the bison of the prince."[31] Johandi notes that this imagery is reminiscent of the young warrior gods archetype, for example Ninurta.[32]
Asalluhi seemed to have a relationship with the deified Shulgi, who was honored in Asalluhi's temple in Kuara.[33] Other texts relate Asar/Asalluhi to deities associated with the underworld and other deified kings, so it is possible that Asalluhi may have had a connection with the underworld.[34]
Jacobsen had argued that Asalluhi was originally a storm god based on the reading of lú-ḫi as lú-ḫe, which would translate the name Asalluhi as "man-drenching Asal," and that Ishkur was also attested with the lú-ḫe epithet.[5] Johandi suggests that it is possible, however there is no other evidence pointing to Asar/Asalluhi originally functioning as a storm god, and points out that a deity being associated with storm imagery does not corroborate to a deity being a storm god with Ninurta being the prime example.[35]
Asalluhi was also said to have granted wisdom to Mesopotamian kings in a couple texts, taking over the role usually reserved for Enki.[36] In Asalluhi A, Asalluhi was described with several traits reminiscent of that of Enki. The sharing of traits with Enki is likely due to the father-son relationship.[37]
In contrast to his usual portrayal as a deity benevolent to humans, some texts, namely Sin-Iddinam's prayer to Ninisina and another Old Babylonian letter relate Asalluhi to plagues. Oshima believes that Marduk was the god related to disease and sickness and Sin-iddinam's prayer is suggestive of Marduk's possible original role before the identification with Asalluhi,[38] but Johandi disagrees and suggests that Asalluhi may have had a similar role prior to the identification with Marduk as the letter was dated quite early (reign of Sumu-abum), although evidence for Asalluhi's role in human sickness is scarce.[39] Asalluhi's implied ability to cancel incantations could also point to a less benevolent side to the god.[40]
Associations with other deities
Asalluhi is considered the son of Enki, likely due to the close proximity between Kuara and Eridu.[23] Although previously it was believed that the earliest attested father-son relationship between Enki and Asalluhi dated to the Ur III period, Johandi noted that the relationship between Asar and Enki dated back the Early Dynastic Period.[41] In an Early Dynastic incantation against snake-bite, Asar sends a man to his father Enki, to which Enki responds that everything he knows, Asar knows too,[42] mirroring the Asalluhi-Enki[lower-alpha 1] incantation formula attested later.[43] Asalluhi was identified as Enki's daughter in one text, and twice in a text from Ugarit. However, as Asalluhi is identified as male in every other text from Mesopotamia, this was likely a scribal mistake.[44][45]
Asar and Asalluhi are commonly believed to be the same god,[1][46][47] but Cunningham suggests that Asar and Asalluhi may have originally been separate gods, as an Old Babylonian god list refers to Asar and Asalluhi separately in consecutive lines.[8] Johandi believes that the separation between Asar and Asalluhi was to distinguish Marduk and Asalluhi apart, not Asar and Asalluhi.[48] The possibility cannot be excluded that Asar, Asalluhi and Asaralimnuna were originally different deities, but it is also just as likely that they were the same god.[34]
During the Old Babylonian period, Asalluhi started to be syncretized with Marduk, with Sin-iddinam's prayer to Ninisina offering the earliest evidence of such syncretism.[39] Another Old Babylonian text substitutes "son of Eridu" with "lord of Tintir" as a title for Asalluhi.[49] A hymn to Asalluhi (Asalluhi A) identifies Asalluhi with Marduk.[50] and a hymn to Marduk from Sippar calls him Asalluhi.[51] A prayer made to Marduk/Asalluhi by Hammurabi clearly views the two to be the same deity.[52] Asalluhi is often substituted with Marduk in the Akkadian bilinguals of the incantations[14] starting from the Old Babylonian period,[53] although some bilinguals still write Asalluhi in the Akkadian version.[53] However, in the Old Babylonian period the syncretism was not yet complete, as one incantation text mentions Marduk and Asalluhi separately and occupying different roles, with Marduk capturing the victim either because of powerlessness or he refused to help,[54] and Asalluhi reporting to Enki and securing a treatment for the victim.[55] Another incantation text against Lamashtu lists Asalluhi and Marduk separately as deterrence to the demon.[56][lower-alpha 2] A prayer for Samsu-iluna also lists Marduk and Asalluhi separately, perhaps as a deliberate policy by Samsu-iluna to reclaim authority over the rebellious south,[57] or as indication that the syncretism was not complete yet during the Old Babylonian period.[58]
It is unclear why Asalluhi and Marduk were syncretized. Sommerfield suggested that both gods had similar traits and were gods of incantations,[59] while Johandi believes that Marduk and Asalluhi were syncretized together for something other than magic.[24] Lambert suggests that Marduk's syncretism with Asalluhi was purely political to make Marduk more respectable.[60]
The name of the wife of Asalluhi was probably Panunanki or Eru(a), judging by how both names were known as alternative names for Marduk's wife Zarpanit.[61] A goddess known as Ninmeḫama appeared together with Asalluhi in The Lamentation for Sumer and Ur. Her actual name could probably be Nin é-HA.A-ke4, meaning "lady of the temple of Kuara."[62] She was likely viewed as Asalluhi's wife, especially as a god list equated Ninmeḫama with Sarpanit.[63]
During the Early Dynastic period, Asar was seemingly associated with other deities, particularly Ashgi and Ishkur.[64]Ninshubur may have also had a connection with Asalluhi.[65] Asalluhi sometimes appears together with Utu in incantation texts, which Johandi interprets as possibly due to influence from syncretism with Marduk,[66] although the sun god was already noted to appear in incantations in connection with deities related to water, including Enki.[67]
Worship
Asalluhi's cult center was the city of Kuara. A text from Abu Salabikh praised Asar-lú-KAL of Kuara, and a hymn praised Asalluhi as the patron god of Kuara, giving him the epithet "highly esteemed prince."[8]
An offering list from Girsu during the Lagash II period lists Asar, who received one sila of princely oil and one sila of dates.[65] Asar/Asalluhi appears in administrative texts from the Ur III period, most commonly from Puzrish-Dagan.[68] Despite being the god of the city of Kuara, in the Ur III texts Ninsun repeatedly receives more offerings than Asalluhi,[69] meaning that Ninsun was likely perceived as the more important deity in Kuara during the Ur III period.[70] Asalluhi appears often with the circle of Enki in offering lists from Nippur and Umma in the Ur III period.[71] It would also seem like Asalluhi received regular offerings in Ur III Girsu.[33] He appears in offering lists from Larsa, Ur and Nippur in the Old Babylonian period, also together with the circle of Enki.[72] As the son and less important god, Asalluhi is generally given less offerings than Enki and Damgalnuna.[73] In texts outside of incantations, Asalluhi appears after Enki and Damgalnuna, forming a triad attested since the Ur III period.[74]
Ninḫursaĝ sometimes transcribed Ninursag, Ninḫarsag, or Ninḫursaĝa, also known as Damgalnuna or Ninmah, was the ancient Sumerian mother goddess of the mountains, and one of the seven great deities of Sumer. She is known earliest as a nurturing or fertility goddess. Temple hymn sources identify her as the "true and great lady of heaven" and kings of Lagash were "nourished by Ninhursag's milk". She is the tutelary deity to several Sumerian leaders.
Marduk is a god from ancient Mesopotamia and patron deity of the city of Babylon who eventually rose to power in the First Millennium BC. In the city of Babylon, Marduk was worshipped in the temple Esagila. His symbol is the spade and he is associated with the Mušḫuššu.
Nammu was a Mesopotamian goddess regarded as a creator deity in the local theology of Eridu. It is assumed that she was associated with water. She is also well attested in connection with incantations and apotropaic magic. She was regarded as the mother of Enki, and in a single inscription she appears as the wife of Anu, but it is assumed that she usually was not believed to have a spouse. From the Old Babylonian period onwards, she was considered to be the mother of An (Heaven) and Ki (Earth), as well as a representation of the primeval sea/ocean, an association that may have come from influence from the goddess Tiamat.
Namtar was a figure in ancient Mesopotamian religion who, depending on the context, could be regarded both as a minor god and as a demon of disease. He is best attested as the sukkal of Ereshkigal, the goddess of the underworld. Like her, he was not the object of active worship, though references to it are made in literary texts, and additionally some incantations entrust him with keeping various other malevolent forces in the underworld.
Anshar was a Mesopotamian god regarded as a primordial king of the gods. He was not actively worshiped. He was regarded as the father of Anu. In the first millennium BCE his name came to be used as a logographic representation of the head god in the Assyrian state pantheon, Ashur. He is attested in a number of god lists, such as An = Anum, and in literary compositions, including the Enūma Eliš.
Damgalnuna, also known as Damkina, was a Mesopotamian goddess regarded as the wife of the god Enki. Her character is poorly defined in known sources, though it is known that like her husband she was associated with ritual purification and that she was believed to intercede with him on behalf of supplicants. Among the deities regarded as their children were Nanshe and Asalluhi. While the myth Enki and Ninhursag treats her as interchangeable with the goddess mentioned in its title, they were usually separate from each other. The cities of Eridu and Malgium were regarded as Damgalnuna's cult centers. She was also worshiped in other settlements, such as Nippur, Sippar and Kalhu, and possibly as early as in the third millennium BCE was incorporated into the Hurrian pantheon. She appears in a number of myths, including the Enūma Eliš, though only a single composition, Damkina's Bond, is focused on her.
Zarpanitu was a Mesopotamian goddess regarded as the spouse of Marduk. Not much is known about her character, though late sources indicate that she was associated with pregnancy and that she could be assigned similar roles as her husband, including that of queen of the gods. She was originally worshiped in Zarpan, a village near Babylon, though the latter city itself also served as her cult center.
Enbilulu was a Mesopotamian god associated with irrigation, and by extension with both canals and rivers. The origin of his name is unknown, and there is no agreement among experts in which way he was related to the similarly named deities Bilulu and Ninbilulu. While originally an independent deity, he eventually came to be seen as a name of Marduk and is mentioned in this role in the Enūma Eliš.
Ningishzida was a Mesopotamian deity of vegetation, the underworld and sometimes war. He was commonly associated with snakes. Like Dumuzi, he was believed to spend a part of the year in the land of the dead. He also shared many of his functions with his father Ninazu.
Ninshubur, also spelled Ninšubura, was a Mesopotamian goddess whose primary role was that of the sukkal of the goddess Inanna. While it is agreed that in this context Ninshubur was regarded as female, in other cases the deity was considered male, possibly due to syncretism with other divine messengers, such as Ilabrat. No certain information about her genealogy is present in any known sources, and she was typically regarded as unmarried. As a sukkal, she functioned both as a messenger deity and as an intercessor between other members of the pantheon and human petitioners.
Pabilsaĝ was a Mesopotamian god. Not much is known about his role in Mesopotamian religion, though it is known that he could be regarded as a bow-armed warrior deity, as a divine cadastral officer or a judge. He might have also been linked to healing, though this remains disputed. In his astral aspect, first attested in the Old Babylonian period, he was a divine representation of the constellation Sagittarius.
Ninazu was a Mesopotamian god of the underworld of Sumerian origin. He was also associated with snakes and vegetation, and with time acquired the character of a warrior god. He was frequently associated with Ereshkigal, either as a son, husband, or simply as a deity belonging to the same category of underworld gods.
Ennugi (𒀭𒂗𒉡𒄄) was a Mesopotamian god associated with agriculture, especially irrigation, and with the underworld. According to an incantation he was also considered to be the creator of grubs. He was considered a member of the court of Enlil, and appears in god lists alongside its other members, such as Ninimma and Kusu. He was worshiped in Nippur, where his temple Erabriri was most likely located. He is also mentioned in a number of myths, including Atra-Hasis and the Epic of Gilgamesh.
Šulpae was a Mesopotamian god. Much about his role in Mesopotamian religion remains uncertain, though it is agreed he was an astral deity associated with the planet Jupiter and that he could be linked to specific diseases, especially bennu. He was regarded as the husband of Ninhursag. Among the deities considered to be their children were Ashgi, Panigingarra and Lisin. The oldest texts which mention him come from the Early Dynastic period, when he was worshiped in Kesh. He is also attested in documents from other cities, for example Nippur, Adab and Girsu. Multiple temples dedicated to him are mentioned in known sources, but their respective locations are unknown.
Tutu was a minor Mesopotamian god. The meaning and origin of his name are uncertain.
Tell al-Lahm is an archaeological site in Dhi Qar Governorate (Iraq). It is 38 km (24 mi) southeast of the site of ancient Ur. Its ancient name is not known with certainty with Kuara, Kisig, and Dur-Iakin having been proposed. The Euphrates River is 256 km (159 mi) away but in antiquity, or a branch of it, ran by the site, continuing to flow until the Muslim Era.
Ningirima was a Mesopotamian goddess associated with incantations, attested already in the Early Dynastic period. She was also associated with snakes, fish and water. According to the god list An = Anum and other sources, she was regarded as a sister of Enlil. While suggestions that she was conflated with the mongoose deity Ninkilim can be found in modern literature, this theory finds no direct support in primary sources.
Idlurugu or Id (dÍD) was a Mesopotamian god regarded as both a river deity and a divine judge. He was the personification of a type of trial by ordeal, which shared its name with him.
Ningublaga was a Mesopotamian god associated with cattle. His cult center was Kiabrig, a little known city located in the proximity of Ur. He belonged to the circle of deities related to the moon god, Nanna, and sometimes could be viewed as his son. He is also well attested as the brother of Alammuš, and they frequently appear together in god lists, incantations and especially in astronomical texts.
Lugaldukuga was a Mesopotamian god primarily understood as a theogonic figure. He is best attested as the father of Enlil, the head of the Mesopotamian pantheon, though other traditions about the parentage of the latter also existed, and no references to him in this role are known from before the Kassite period. Sometimes he could also be described as his grandfather instead. He was envisioned as a no longer active and as an inhabitant of the underworld. He could be equated with other deities of similar character, such as Enmesharra. It is not known which part of Mesopotamia he originated in, though references to him are known from texts from both Babylonia and Assyria.
Jacobsen, Thorkild (1970). Toward the Image of Tammuz and Other Essays on Mesopotamian History and Culture. Harvard University Press. ISBN978-0-674-89810-3.
Johandi, Andreas (2018). "Some Remarks about the Beginnings of Marduk". Conceptualizing the Past, Present and Future- Proceedings of the Ninth Symposium of the Melammu Project Held in Helsinki/Tartu May 18-24, 2015.
Sommerfield, Walter (1982). Der Aufstieg Marduks: Die Stellung Marduks in der babylonischen Religion des zweiten Jahrtausends v. Chr. Butzon & Bercker. ISBN978-3766692733.
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