Bird trapping

Last updated
Painting of a lethal deadfall trap, a detail of Bruegel's 1565 Winter Landscape with Ice skaters and Bird trap Pieter Bruegel d. A. 094.jpg
Painting of a lethal deadfall trap, a detail of Bruegel's 1565 Winter Landscape with Ice skaters and Bird trap

Bird trapping techniques to capture wild birds include a wide range of techniques that have their origins in the hunting of birds for food. While hunting for food does not require birds to be caught alive, some trapping techniques capture birds without harming them and are of use in ornithology research. Wild birds may also be trapped for their display in captivity in zoological gardens or for keeping as a pet. Bird trapping was formerly unregulated, but to protect bird populations most countries have specific laws and regulations. [1] [2] [3]

Contents

Luring

Birds are lured into the vicinity of traps through the use of suitable habitat patches where the birds are known to visit. A specific location may be further modified by the provision of food, the use of decoy birds, the use of calls, or owls that may induce mobbing. Male birds of some species are used as decoys during the breeding seasons to challenge and beckon other males from nearby. Larks were formerly attracted using a rotary paddle, sometimes with shiny mirrors attached, turned by a spring. The phrase "a mirror for larks" was once a common metaphor for a trap. [4] Owls and their calls are often used to bring birds out of dense vegetations. The technique has also been used by birdwatchers. [5] [6]

Trapping techniques

Crows in a trap on a farm in England A crow trap at Whitchesters Farm - geograph.org.uk - 2509451.jpg
Crows in a trap on a farm in England

Almost all traps involve the use of food, water or decoys to attract birds within range and a mechanism for restricting the movement, injuring or killing birds that come into range. Food, water, decoy birds and call playback may be used to bring birds to the trap. The use of chemical sprays on crops or food can have more widespread effects and are not usually included in trapping techniques although there are some capture techniques that make use of bait with stupefying agents. [7] The mechanism can be physical and non-lethal like a noose that tightens around the leg or lethal like in deadfall traps. Lethal techniques have been used for the control of birds considered as pests or can be used in the capture of birds for food. Traps can vary in their design to capture individual birds or large flocks and are adapted according to the habitat and behaviour of the birds. Trapping is regulated in most countries and needs to be operated by trained research personnel and failure to follow precautions can lead to injury or death of birds. [8] [9]

Trap door traps

Introduced in 2011, trap door traps are humane box traps with a spring-loaded lid and feeding platform. The trap attracts target birds to feed and is triggered when the bird steps on a perch. The trap then drops the bird via gravity into a quiet, comfortable space until they are ready for live removal and relocation. There is no stress to the bird – no part of the trap makes contact nor does a human touch. These traps offer flexibility in bait and attraction techniques, can be outfitted with an internal catch bag for bird removal, and some include a means to send a notification to a phone or remote operator that a bird has been captured. Trap door traps are most often used for relocating small birds that have entered public buildings and structures such as warehouses, atrium and airport terminals.

Clap traps

Clap traps are spring-loaded frames with netting that are set up in two parts that come together rapidly when triggered by birds or manually controlled to enclose birds. They are usually used for ground birds but some variants are used in shallow water for the capture of waterfowl. Clap traps may be placed at a location habitually used by birds or can include luring devices.

Funnel traps/corral traps

Funnel traps have a narrow entrance into which birds may be lured or driven and the entrance typically leads to larger holding pen or corral (which also gives them the name of corral trap). Funnel traps can be very large and a particularly well-known large scale form was devised in the German bird observatory at Heligoland and are termed as a Heligoland trap. [10]

Cannon nets

Flocking birds are sometimes trapped using a large net which is thrown using a series of synchronized cannons or rockets that shoot a weight that drags a net behind it over the entire flock. These nets are also called rocket nets or boom nets. Capturing entire flocks can be an important tool for studies where large numbers of birds need to be examined (such as when monitoring for viruses) or when the birds are gregarious and social. These techniques are used especially in open habitats and are particularly suited for waders and waterbirds. After examination, ringing or other operations, the captured birds are usually released together rather than individually.

Mist nets

Mist nets are fine nets that are suitable for capturing birds in woodlands. The fine net is strung across trees so as to lie in the flight path of a bird. A bird flies into the nearly invisible net and falls to a fold at the bottom of the net where it usually gets entangled. These nets are used especially in bird ringing and are typically never left unsupervised. A bird that falls is quickly removed to avoid injury to the bird and to prevent it from falling prey to predators.

Noose traps

Birds that walk on the ground can be captured using an array of mono-filament nooses. These are usually placed along favoured feeding, roosting or nest sites. [11] Some raptors are trapped using live-bait and nooses on the cage holding the bait. This trap, also known as a bal-chatri , has also been adapted to capture other birds such as shrikes. [12] A "noose carpet" is another variant that consists of a number of tiny nooses on a mat. [13]

Birdlime

The muscles of perching birds allow the toes to pull inwards with some force but there are no strong muscles to open them up. The application of sticky latex, "birdlime", often obtained from a local tree to favourite perches is used in many parts of the world to capture small birds. Other variations include the use of a long stick daubed with birdlime that is manually placed over the bird to cause its wings to get stuck. [14] The sale and use of birdlime is illegal in many jurisdictions, but its use was widespread in older times. [15]

Spot-light trapping

Netting larks at night with a lantern Lighttrap.jpg
Netting larks at night with a lantern

Some birds such as partridges and pheasants can be caught in the night by stunning them with bright light beams. [16] Before the 19th Century, lanterns were used for hunting larks at night in Spain, Italy and England. In Italy the technique was known as lanciatoia and in England it was referred to as bat-fowling or low belling. [1]

Other methods used in control and hunting

A baited trap Baitedtrap.jpg
A baited trap

A number of lethal techniques have been described for the killing of birds. Dead-fall traps, consisting of heavy slabs or branches, that fall onto the targets when they trigger it from below have been described from early times. A painting of such a trap for killing crows was made by Pieter Bruegel the Elder in 1565. Birds are particularly vulnerable at their nest and a variety of methods to capture nesting birds exist around the world. [17] In 2005, after a 100-year-long prohibition, the French government permitted the reintroduction of the use of stone traps ("tendelles") in the Départements Lozère and Aveyron. [18] Around the Mediterranean birds are caught in France, Italy, Spain, Greece, Cyprus, Malta and other countries by traps specifically during the migratory seasons when birds travel between Europe and Africa and back. In many countries trapping of wild birds is illegal and thus represents poaching. Cyprus is a stepping stone in the eastern European-African flyway. Although illegal for decades bird trapping is a black market enterprise with a profitable sale of birds to restaurants that cater to their patrons serving ambelopoulia. [19] The spring 2010 led to the killing of over a quarter million of birds in Cyprus. [19] Some birds with weak flight can be captured by chasing them. In India waterfowl were once captured by hunters who walked underwater with an earthen pot over their head. By walking up to floating ducks they could grab the legs of the duck. Empty pots were floated for a few days to make the birds accustomed to them. [14]

Restraint and handling of trapped birds

Waterfowl and long billed birds

Ducks, geese and other water birds can use their wings and bills to batter handlers and inflict potentially significant injuries. Loons, grebes and herons have long, sharp beaks, which they will stab at the face of a handler. These could inflict serious injury. To restrain a captured waterfowl, the handlers can grasp the base of the neck and hold the wings back and immobile, much like they would a domestic waterfowl. ( [20] )

Shore birds and gulls

Shore birds are not difficult to handle. After carefully extracting them from the net, small birds can be held around the body, with the fingers at the back of the head. While shore birds are not aggressive, they do have sharp beaks. Some caution should be used in keeping the bird's beak away from the handler's face, as is the case with any bird. ( [21] ).

Raptors

Raptors are adapted carnivores. Their talons and beaks are designed to rend flesh from prey. They can cause serious injury to an unwary handler! Use of heavy leather gloves is recommended when handling raptors. Though a raptor's beak and talons can pierce it, it will provide some protection for the handler. A simple falconer's hood can reduce stress on the bird, while a tether at the metatarsi could bind the bird to a perch or block. Raptors can be captured by throwing a towel over the target, then wrapping it in the towel. This technique works best when the bird is on a flat surface. Another way is to wrap your hands around the body and wings of the bird, making sure to grab the feet and pull them up to the body from behind. Once you have the bird in hand, restrain the talons and head. There are different ways of doing this, and each is dictated by what you will be doing with the bird. Owls have a defensive posture where they will lie on their back and flail at a handler with their talons. Use a towel for the owl to claw at. A trapped raptor will clamp onto the first thing it can get its talons around. While it has the towel, its legs can be secured. The talons of a large raptor must be carefully controlled! If a handler is impaled by a talon, allow the bird to move away, or risk struggle and injury. Medium-sized raptors can be restrained by a set of nylon hose for long periods of time. ( [21] )

Flightless birds

Penguins: Though flightless, a penguins' wings can be used as flippers to beat handlers. Penguins must be grasped at the base of the head from behind, so as to avoid the sharp, fish catching beak. Another way to capture large penguins is to cover them in a trash can with a hole in the bottom. Ostrich, emu, and cassowaries: Large members of this croup have pecking beaks and long legs used to kick. The cassowary in particular has a large claw on one toe that can inflict serious lacerations and punctures, or even disembowelment. Emus can be handled with a straddling technique, where one arm goes around the body and the other behind the legs. Ostriches and cassowaries, however, need to be moved to a smaller enclosure to be physically handled. One technique is to have a special enclosure that is open until the ostrich reaches a corner. Once in the corner, the wall of the enclosure will come to the side of the ostrich, trapping it in a narrow rectangular set of walls. Other restraint techniques include lowering and directing the head of the ostrich. This is said to discourage an ostrich from kicking forward. A large wooden shield can be used to get a cassowary or an ostrich into a holding enclosure without injury to the handler. This technique is favored when handling cassowaries due to their formidable claws and aggressive behavior. ( [21] )

Laws

Capturing gannets with a noose Noosinggannets.jpg
Capturing gannets with a noose

Most countries have laws prohibiting the use of traps for capturing birds. Professional bird trapping may be regulated by licenses and researchers requiring to trap bird will usually need to obtain permissions. Hunting to some extent may however be allowed and some birds may be exempted. Traps may thus be used under some circumstances such as in the control of birds considered as pests. Some international treaties aim to protect migratory species across national boundaries. Some organizations work to protect birds from trappers. Several organizations have emerged to identify and remove traps and help authorities. Among the volunteer organizations are Lega per l´Abolizione della Caccia (League for the Abolition of Hunting), Centro Soccorso Animali Modena (CSA) Modena (Fauna Rescue Centre Modena), World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF Italia), and LIPU (Lega Italiana Protezione Uccelli or Italian League for Bird Protection, Naples) One volunteer organization removed 150,000 illegal traps during a ten-year span. [22]

In Europe, the 1979 Birds Directive and its amendments seeks to protect wild birds and allows hunting only within certain limits. [23] According to the Directive use of traps, bird lime (glue), nets, live decoys and poison is forbidden at all times and birds are protected during breeding and spring migration. [24] Malta joined the European Union in 2004 and obtained certain exemptions from the protective laws that apply to the membership states regarding wild birds. Trapping of several types of finches was allowed for five years until 2009 when the derogation was phased out. Malta had about 4,700 licensed trappers in 2007 [25] who, by exemption from European protective laws, continue to trap quail, turtle doves, golden plovers and song thrushes. [26] Further, illegal trapping continues to be a problem in Malta. [27] In North America the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 and its amendments protect wild birds.

Ecological impact

Trapping can devastate local bird populations and also impact migrants at critical stopover sites. In Malta, three local species have been extirpated by trappers and hunters—the peregrine falcon, the barn owl and the jackdaw. [28] Jonathan Franzen has called Malta "the most savagely bird-hostile place in Europe". [29] Trapping also affects migratory birds at important stopover sites such as the Maltese islands. [30] However, one book claims that peregrine falcons have again started to breed successfully since 2009 in Malta and that the main hunting organisation openly speaks against illegal hunting and trapping. The author also suggests that claims by Birdlife are often exaggerated. [31] [ verification needed ] [32]

A study of prehistoric kitchen middens suggests that hunting by humans may have contributed to the extinction of several bird species. [33]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Owl</span> Birds from the order Strigiformes

Owls are birds from the order Strigiformes, which includes over 200 species of mostly solitary and nocturnal birds of prey typified by an upright stance, a large, broad head, binocular vision, binaural hearing, sharp talons, and feathers adapted for silent flight. Exceptions include the diurnal northern hawk-owl and the gregarious burrowing owl.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bird of prey</span> Paraphyletic group of birds

Birds of prey or predatory birds, also known as raptors, are hypercarnivorous bird species that actively hunt and feed on other vertebrates. In addition to speed and strength, these predators have keen eyesight for detecting prey from a distance or during flight, strong feet with sharp talons for grasping or killing prey, and powerful, curved beaks for tearing off flesh. Although predatory birds primarily hunt live prey, many species also scavenge and eat carrion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cassowary</span> Genus of flightless birds

Cassowaries are flightless birds of the genus Casuarius in the order Casuariiformes. They are classified as ratites: flightless birds without a keel on their sternum bones. Cassowaries are native to the tropical forests of New Guinea, The Moluccas, and northeastern Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ratite</span> Polyphyletic group of birds

Ratites are a polyphyletic group consisting of all birds within the infraclass Palaeognathae that lack keels and cannot fly. They are mostly large, long-necked, and long-legged, the exception being the kiwi, which is also the only nocturnal extant ratite.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Falconry</span> Hunting with a trained bird of prey

Falconry is the hunting of wild animals in their natural state and habitat by means of a trained bird of prey. Small animals are hunted; squirrels and rabbits often fall prey to these birds. Two traditional terms are used to describe a person involved in falconry: a "falconer" flies a falcon; an "austringer" keeps Goshawks and uses accipiters for hunting. In modern falconry, the red-tailed hawk, Harris's hawk, and the peregrine falcon are some of the more commonly used birds of prey. The practice of hunting with a conditioned falconry bird is also called "hawking" or "gamehawking", although the words hawking and hawker have become used so much to refer to petty traveling traders, that the terms "falconer" and "falconry" now apply to most use of trained birds of prey to catch game. However, many contemporary practitioners still use these words in their original meaning.

The beak, bill, or rostrum is an external anatomical structure found mostly in birds, but also in turtles, non-avian dinosaurs and a few mammals. A beak is used for pecking, grasping, and holding, preening, courtship, and feeding young. The terms beak and rostrum are also used to refer to a similar mouth part in some ornithischians, pterosaurs, cetaceans, dicynodonts, rhynchosaurs, anuran tadpoles, monotremes, sirens, pufferfish, billfishes and cephalopods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red-tailed hawk</span> Species of bird

The red-tailed hawk is a bird of prey that breeds throughout most of North America, from the interior of Alaska and northern Canada to as far south as Panama and the West Indies. It is one of the most common members within the genus of Buteo in North America or worldwide. The red-tailed hawk is one of three species colloquially known in the United States as the "chickenhawk", though it rarely preys on standard-sized chickens. The bird is sometimes also referred to as the red-tail for short, when the meaning is clear in context.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Decoy</span> Person, device, or event designed as a distraction

A decoy is usually a person, device, or event which resembles what an individual or a group might be looking for, but it is only meant to lure them. Decoys have been used for centuries most notably in game hunting, but also in wartime and in the committing or resolving of crimes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mist net</span> Net used to capture wild birds or bats

Mist nets are nets used to capture wild birds and bats. They are used by hunters and poachers to catch and kill animals, but also by ornithologists and chiropterologists for banding and other research projects. Mist nets are typically made of nylon or polyester mesh suspended between two poles, resembling a volleyball net. When properly deployed in the correct habitat, the nets are virtually invisible. Mist nets have shelves created by horizontally strung lines that create a loose, baggy pocket. When a bird or bat hits the net, it falls into this pocket, where it becomes tangled.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prairie falcon</span> Species of bird

The prairie falcon is a medium-large sized falcon of western North America. It is about the size of a peregrine falcon or a crow, with an average length of 40 cm (16 in), wingspan of approximately 1 meter (40 in), and average weight of 720 g (1.6 lb). As in all falcons, females are noticeably bigger than males. Though a separate species from the peregrine, the prairie falcon is basically an arid environment divergence of the early peregrine falcon lineage, able to subsist on less food than the peregrine, and generally lighter in weight than a peregrine of similar wing span. Having evolved in a harsh desert environment with low prey density, the prairie falcon has developed into an aggressive and opportunistic hunter of a wide range of both mammal and bird prey. It will regularly take prey from the size of sparrows to approximately its own weight, and occasionally much larger. It is the only larger falcon native only to North America. It is resident from southern Canada, through western United States, and into northern Mexico. The prairie falcon is popular as a falconry bird, where with proper training it is regarded as being as effective as the more well known peregrine falcon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Verreaux's eagle-owl</span> Species of owl

Verreaux's eagle-owl, also commonly known as the milky eagle owl or giant eagle owl, is a member of the family Strigidae. This species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa. A member of the genus Ketupa, it is the largest African owl, measuring up to 66 cm (26 in) in total length. This eagle-owl is a resident primarily of dry, wooded savanna. Verreaux's eagle-owl is mainly grey in color and is distinguishable from other large owls by its bright pink eyelids, a feature shared with no other owl species in the world.

Training raptors is a complex undertaking. Books containing advice by experienced falconers are still rudimentary at best. Many important details vary between individual raptors, species of raptors and between places and times. The keeping and training of any raptor is strictly and tightly regulated by U.S. state and federal laws. Anyone in the USA who is interested in flying raptors must seek out a state and federally licensed falconer to sponsor them through an apprenticeship period lasting two years at a minimum, and often considerably longer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Birdlime</span> Adhesive substance used in trapping birds

Birdlime or bird lime is an adhesive substance used in trapping birds. It is spread on a branch or twig, upon which a bird may land and be caught. Its use is illegal in many jurisdictions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fishing tackle</span> Equipment used for fishing

Fishing tackle is the equipment used by anglers when fishing. Almost any equipment or gear used in fishing can be called fishing tackle, examples being hooks, lines, baits/lures, rods, reels, floats, sinkers/feeders, nets, spears, gaffs and traps, as well as wires, snaps, beads, spoons, blades, spinners, clevises and tools that make it easy to tie knots.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Khedda</span>

A khedda or the Khedda system was a stockade trap for the capture of a full herd of elephants that was used in India; other methods were also used to capture single elephants. The elephants were driven into the stockade by skilled mahouts mounted on domesticated elephants. This method was practiced widely in North-east India, particularly in the state of Assam, mostly in South India, and in particular in the erstwhile Mysore State state.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bal-chatri</span> Trap designed to catch birds of prey

Bal-chatri are traps designed to catch birds of prey (raptors). The trap essentially consists of a cage baited inside with a conspicuously visible live rodent or small bird, with a series of monofilament nooses attached to the surface to snare the legs of a free-flying raptor that attempts to take the bait. The name is derived from the Hindi word used by trappers in India. Modified bal-chatri traps are also used for catching shrikes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lovelock Cave</span> Cave in United States of America

Lovelock Cave (NV-Ch-18) is a North American archaeological site previously known as Sunset Guano Cave, Horseshoe Cave, and Loud Site 18. The cave is about 150 feet (46 m) long and 35 feet (11 m) wide. Lovelock Cave is one of the most important classic sites of the Great Basin region because the conditions of the cave are conducive to the preservation of organic and inorganic material. The cave was placed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 24, 1984. It was the first major cave in the Great Basin to be excavated, and the Lovelock Cave people are part of the University of California Archaeological Community's Lovelock Cave Station.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human uses of birds</span> Overview of humans uses of birds

Human uses of birds have, for thousands of years, included both economic uses such as food, and symbolic uses such as art, music, and religion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Avian foraging</span>

Avian foraging refers to the range of activities and behaviours exhibited by birds in their quest for food. In addition to their unique body adaptations, birds have a range of described behaviours that differ from the foraging behaviours of other animal groups. According to the foraging habitat, birds may be grouped into foraging guilds. Foraging includes a range of activities, starting with the search for food, making use of sensory abilities, and which may involve one or more birds either of a single or even of multiple species. This is followed by locomotion and movements to obtain or capture the food, followed by the processing or handling of the foods prior to ingestion. Like all organisms foraging entails balancing the energy spent and energy gained. The high metabolic rate of birds, among the highest in the homoeotherm groups, constrains them to ensure a net positive gain in energy and have led evolutionary ethologists to develop the idea of optimal foraging.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Raptor persecution</span> Abuse of birds of prey

In the United Kingdom, raptor persecution is a crime against wildlife. The offence includes poisoning, shooting, trapping, and nest destruction or disturbance of birds of prey.

References

  1. 1 2 Macpherson HA (1897). A history of fowling. Edinburgh: David Douglas.
  2. ↑ Fitzwater, William D. (1970). "Trapping – the oldest profession". Proceedings of the 4th Vertebrate Pest Conference (1970). University of Nebraska.
  3. ↑ Bub, H. (1991). Bird trapping and bird banding. New York: Cornell University Press. ISBN   0801483123.
  4. ↑ Fenech, Natalino (2005). "Lark Mirrors: From Tools to Folk Art". Folk Life. 44 (1): 30–47. doi:10.1179/flk.2005.44.1.30. S2CID   194028324.
  5. ↑ Crozier, Gaea E; Gawlik, Dale E (2003). "The use of decoys as a research tool for attracting wading birds". Journal of Field Ornithology. 74: 53–58. doi:10.1648/0273-8570-74.1.53. S2CID   86310724.
  6. ↑ Zuberogoitia, Iñigo; Martínez, José Enrique; Martínez, José Antonio; Zabala, Jabi; Calvo, José F; Azkona, Ainara; Pagán, Iluminada (2008). "The Dho-gaza and Mist Net with Eurasian Eagle-Owl (Bubo bubo) Lure: Effectiveness in Capturing Thirteen Species of European Raptors". Journal of Raptor Research. 42: 48–51. doi: 10.3356/JRR-05-31.1 . S2CID   85698511.
  7. ↑ Murton, R. K.; Isaacson, A. J. & Westwood, N. J. (1965). "Capturing Columbids at the Nest with Stupefying Baits". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 29 (3): 647–649. doi:10.2307/3798071. JSTOR   3798071.
  8. ↑ Pettingill, Olin Sewall Jr. (1970). Ornithology in Laboratory and Field (4 ed.). Burgess Publishing Company. pp. 432–433.
  9. ↑ Petrides, GA (1946). "Snares and Deadfalls". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 10 (3): 234–238. doi:10.2307/3795838. JSTOR   3795838.
  10. ↑ Woodford J & Hussell, DJT (1961). "Construction and use of Heligoland traps" (PDF). Bird-Banding. 32 (3): 125–141. doi:10.2307/4510880. JSTOR   4510880.
  11. ↑ Gartshore, Mary E. (1978). "A noose trap for catching nesting birds" (PDF). North American Bird Bander. 3 (1): 1–2.
  12. ↑ Berger, Daniel D. & Mueller, Helmut C. (1959). "The Bal-Chatri: A Trap for the Birds of Prey". Bird-Banding. 30 (1): 18–26. doi:10.2307/4510726. JSTOR   4510726.
  13. ↑ Doerr, ED; VAJ Doerr & PB Stacey (1998). "Two capture methods for Black-billed Magpies" (PDF). Western Birds. 29: 55–58.
  14. 1 2 Harper, EW (1903). "Bird-catching in India". Avicultural Magazine. 1 (8): 262–268.
  15. ↑ Fitzwater, WD (1982). "Bird limes and rat glues. Sticky situations". Proceedings of the Tenth Vertebrate Pest Conference (1982). University of Nebraska.
  16. ↑ Labisky, Ronald F. (1959). Night-lighting: A technique for capturing birds and mammals. Biological Notes. 40 (PDF). Natural History Survey Division, Illinois.
  17. ↑ Rômulo RN Alves; Lívia ET Mendonça; Maine VA Confessor; Washington LS Vieira; Luiz CS Lopez (2009). "Hunting strategies used in the semi-arid region of northeastern Brazil". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 5 (12): 12. doi: 10.1186/1746-4269-5-12 . PMC   2678999 . PMID   19386121.
  18. ↑ Proact France (September 17, 2009). "Update: Protest against Stone Crush Traps in France". Archived from the original on July 17, 2011. Retrieved August 14, 2010.
  19. 1 2 BirdLifeCyprus (August 5, 2010). "Frontline News on Illegal Bird Trapping in Cyprus – Spring 2010" . Retrieved August 12, 2010.
  20. ↑
    • Fowler, M. E. 2011. Birds. "Restraint and Handling of Wild and Domesticated Animals." Pages 377–410. Blackwell Publishing.
  21. 1 2 3
    • Fowler, M. E. 2011. Birds. Pages 377–410 in "Restraint and Handling of Wild and Domesticated Animals." Blackwell Publishing.
  22. ↑ Peter Popham (January 13, 2007). "Killing of eagle highlights Italy's wild bird slaughter". The Independent. London. Retrieved August 12, 2010.
  23. ↑ European Union. "Conservation of wild birds (Birds Directive)" . Retrieved August 12, 2010.
  24. ↑ Pettifer, Julian (June 1, 2005). "Italy's fight against illegal bird hunts". BBC News. Retrieved August 12, 2010.
  25. ↑ BirdLife Malta. "Illegal hunting and trapping of wild birds in the Maltese islands" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 26, 2011. Retrieved August 13, 2010.
  26. ↑ BirdLife Malta. "Derogations of Trapping". Archived from the original on November 21, 2010. Retrieved August 14, 2010.
  27. ↑ Clover, Charles (March 17, 2010). "The first sound of spring is illegal bird slaughter". The Times. London. Retrieved August 12, 2010.[ dead link ]
  28. ↑ BBC (October 17, 2009). "The fight against Malta's illegal bird hunt". BBC News. Retrieved August 12, 2010.
  29. ↑ Franzen, Jonathan, "Emptying the Skies," The New Yorker, July 26, 2010, p. 48
  30. ↑ Raine, André F. Raine (2007). The international impact of hunting and trapping in the Maltese islands (PDF). BirdLife Malta. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-25. Retrieved 2011-02-01.
  31. ↑ Fenech, N. 2010 A Complete Guide to the Birds of Malta. Midseabooks 2010
  32. ↑ Alexander, Adam (October 2015). "Maltese falcon makes a comeback". The Guardian.
  33. ↑ Richard P. Duncan, Tim M. Blackburn and Trevor H. Worthy (2002). "Prehistoric bird extinctions and human hunting". Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. 269 (1490): 517–521. doi:10.1098/rspb.2001.1918. PMC   1690920 . PMID   11886645.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.