The peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), also known simply as the peregrine,[3] is a cosmopolitanbird of prey (raptor) in the familyFalconidae. A large, crow-sized falcon, it has a blue-grey back, barred white underparts, and a black head. The peregrine is renowned for its speed. It can reach over 320km/h (200mph) during its characteristic hunting stoop (high-speed dive),[4] making it the fastest animal on the planet.[5][6][7] According to a National Geographic TV program, the highest measured speed of a peregrine falcon is 389km/h (242mph).[8][9] As is typical for bird-eating (avivore) raptors, peregrine falcons are sexually dimorphic, with females being considerably larger than males.[10][11] Historically, it has also been known as "black-cheeked falcon" in Australia,[12] and "duck hawk" in North America.[13]
The breeding range includes land regions from the Arctic tundra to the tropics. It can be found nearly everywhere on Earth, except extreme polar regions, very high mountains, and most tropical rainforests; the only major ice-free landmass from which it is entirely absent is New Zealand. This makes it the world's most widespread raptor[14] and one of the most widely found wild bird species. In fact, the only land-based bird species found over a larger geographic area owes its success to human-led introduction; the domestic and feral pigeons are both domesticated forms of the rock dove, a major prey species for Eurasian Peregrine populations. Due to their abundance over most other bird species in cities, feral pigeons support many peregrine populations as a staple food source, especially in urban settings.
The peregrine is a highly successful example of urban wildlife in much of its range, taking advantage of tall buildings as nest sites and an abundance of prey such as pigeons and ducks. Both the English and scientific names of this species mean "wandering falcon", referring to the migratory habits of many northern populations. A total of 18 or 19 regional subspecies are accepted, which vary in appearance; disagreement existed in the past over whether the distinctive Barbary falcon was represented by two subspecies of Falco peregrinus or was a separate species, F. pelegrinoides, and several of the other subspecies were originally described as species. The genetic differential between them (and also the difference in their appearance) is very small, only about 0.6–0.8% genetically differentiated, showing the divergence is relatively recent, during the time of the Last Ice Age;[15] all the major ornithological authorities now treat the barbary falcon as a subspecies.[16]
Although its diet consists almost exclusively of medium-sized birds, the peregrine will sometimes hunt small mammals, small reptiles, or even insects. Reaching sexual maturity at one year, it mates for life and nests in a scrape, normally on cliff edges or, in recent times, on tall human-made structures.[17] The peregrine falcon became an endangered species in many areas because of the widespread use of certain pesticides, especially DDT. Since the ban on DDT from the early 1970s, populations have recovered, supported by large-scale protection of nesting places and releases to the wild.[18]
The peregrine falcon is a well-respected falconry bird due to its strong hunting ability, high trainability, versatility, and availability via captive breeding. It is effective on most game bird species, from small to large. It has also been used as a religious, royal, or national symbol across multiple eras and areas of human civilization.
The peregrine falcon has a body length of 34to 58cm (13–23in) and a wingspan from 74to 120cm (29–47in).[10][19] The male and female have similar markings and plumage but, as with many birds of prey, the peregrine falcon displays marked sexual dimorphism in size, with the female measuring up to 30% larger than the male.[20] Males weigh 330to 1,000g (12–35oz) and the noticeably larger females weigh 700to 1,500g (25–53oz). In most subspecies, males weigh less than 700g (25oz) and females weigh more than 800g (28oz), and cases of females weighing about 50% more than their male breeding mates are not uncommon.[11][21][22] The standard linear measurements of peregrines are: the wing chord measures 26.5to 39cm (10.4–15.4in), the tail measures 13to 19cm (5.1–7.5in) and the tarsus measures 4.5to 5.6cm (1.8–2.2in).[14]
Shows the appearance of Peregrine Falcon
The back and the long pointed wings of the adult are usually bluish black to slate grey with indistinct darker barring (see "Subspecies" below); the wingtips are black.[19] The white to rusty underparts are barred with thin clean bands of dark brown or black.[14] The tail, coloured like the back but with thin clean bars, is long, narrow, and rounded at the end with a black tip and a white band at the very end. The top of the head and a "moustache" along the cheeks are black, contrasting sharply with the pale sides of the neck and white throat.[23] The cere is yellow, as are the feet, and the beak and claws are black.[24] The upper beak is notched near the tip, an adaptation which enables falcons to kill prey by severing the spinal column at the neck.[10][11][4] An immature bird is much browner, with streaked, rather than barred, underparts, and has a pale bluish cere and orbital ring.[10]
A study shows that their black malar stripe exists to reduce glare from solar radiation, allowing them to see better. Photos from The Macaulay Library and iNaturalist showed that the malar stripe is thicker where there is more solar radiation.[25] That supports the solar glare hypothesis.
Falco peregrinus was first described under its current binomial name by English ornithologist Marmaduke Tunstall in his 1771 work Ornithologia Britannica.[26] The scientific name Falco peregrinus is a Medieval Latin phrase that was used by Albertus Magnus in 1225. Peregrinus is Latin, meaning "one from abroad" or "coming from foreign parts". It is likely the name was used as juvenile birds were taken while journeying to their breeding location (rather than from the nest), as falcon nests are often difficult to get at.[27] The Latin term for falcon, falco, is related to falx, meaning "sickle", in reference to the silhouette of the falcon's long, pointed wings in flight.[4]
The peregrine falcon belongs to a genus whose lineage includes the hierofalcons[note 1] and the prairie falcon (F.mexicanus). This lineage probably diverged from other falcons towards the end of the Late Miocene or in the Late Pliocene, about 3–8million years ago (mya).[15][28][29][30][31][32][33] As the peregrine-hierofalcon group includes both Old World and North American species, it is likely that the lineage originated in western Eurasia or Africa. Its relationship to other falcons is not clear, as the issue is complicated by widespread hybridization confounding mtDNAsequence analyses. One genetic lineage of the saker falcon (F.cherrug) is known[28][29] to have originated from a male saker ancestor producing fertile young with a female peregrine ancestor, and the descendants further breeding with sakers.[34]
Subspecies
Numerous subspecies of Falco peregrinus have been described, with 18 accepted by the IOC World Bird List,[35] and 19 accepted by the 1994 Handbook of the Birds of the World,[10][11][36] which considers the Barbary falcon of the Canary Islands and coastal North Africa to be two subspecies (F. p. pelegrinoides and F. p. babylonicus) of Falco peregrinus, rather than a distinct species, F. pelegrinoides. The following map shows the general ranges of these 19 subspecies.
Breeding ranges of the 19 subspeciesIllustration of the subspecies babylonicus by John GouldA juvenile of the subspecies ernesti in Mount Mahawu, North Sulawesi, IndonesiaAn adult of either the subspecies pealei or tundrius by its nest in AlaskaF. p. submelanogenys at Herdsman Lake, near Perth, Western Australia
Falco peregrinus anatum, described by Bonaparte in 1838,[37] is known as the American peregrine falcon or "duck hawk"; its scientific name means "duck peregrine falcon". At one time, it was partly included in F. p. leucogenys. It is mainly found in the Rocky Mountains. It was formerly common throughout North America between the tundra and northern Mexico, where current reintroduction efforts are being made to restore the population.[37] Most mature F. p. anatum, except those that breed in more northern areas, winter in their breeding range. Most vagrants that reach western Europe seem to belong to the more northern and strongly migratory F. p. tundrius, only considered distinct since 1968. It is similar to the nominate subspecies but is slightly smaller; adults are somewhat paler and less patterned below, but juveniles are darker and more patterned below. Males weigh 500to 700g (1.1–1.5lb), while females weigh 800to 1,100g (1.8–2.4lb).[22] It became regionally extinct in eastern North America in the mid 20th century, and populations there now are hybrids as a result of reintroductions of birds from elsewhere.[38]
Falco peregrinus babylonicus, described by P.L. Sclater in 1861, is found in eastern Iran along the Hindu Kush and the Tian Shan to the Mongolian Altai ranges. A few birds winter in northern and northwestern India, mainly in dry semi-desert habitats.[39] It is paler than F. p. pelegrinoides and similar to a small, pale lanner falcon (Falco biarmicus). Males weigh 330 to 400 grams (12 to 14oz), while females weigh 513 to 765 grams (18.1 to 27.0oz).[11]
Falco peregrinus brookei, described by Sharpe in 1873, is also known as the Mediterranean peregrine falcon or the Maltese falcon.[note 2] It includes F. p. caucasicus and most specimens of the proposed race F. p. punicus, though others may be F. p. pelegrinoides (Barbary falcons), or perhaps the rare hybrids between these two which might occur around Algeria. They occur from the Iberian Peninsula around the Mediterranean, except in arid regions, to the Caucasus. They are non-migratory. It is smaller than the nominate subspecies and the underside usually has a rusty hue.[14] Males weigh around 445g (0.981lb), while females weigh up to 920g (2.03lb).[11]
Falco peregrinus calidus, described by John Latham in 1790, it was formerly called F. p. leucogenys and includes F. p. caeruleiceps. It breeds in the Arctic tundra of Eurasia from Murmansk Oblast to roughly Yana and Indigirka Rivers, Siberia. It is completely migratory and travels south in winter as far as South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. It is often seen around wetland habitats.[40] It is paler than the nominate subspecies, especially on the crown. Males weigh 588to 740g (1.296–1.631lb), while females weigh 925to 1,333g (2.039–2.939lb).[11]
Falco peregrinus cassini, described by Sharpe in 1873, is also known as the austral peregrine falcon. It includes F. p. kreyenborgi, the pallid falcon,[note 3] a leucistic colour morph occurring in southernmost South America, which was long believed to be a distinct species.[41] Its range includes South America from Ecuador through Bolivia, northern Argentina and Chile to Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands.[14] It is non-migratory. It is similar to the nominate subspecies, but slightly smaller with a black ear region. The pallid falcon morph F. p. kreyenborgi is medium grey above, has little barring below and has a head pattern like the saker falcon (Falco cherrug), but the ear region is white.[41]
Falco peregrinus ernesti, described by Sharpe in 1894, is found from the Sunda Islands to the Philippines and south to eastern New Guinea and the nearby Bismarck Archipelago. Its geographical separation from F. p. nesiotes requires confirmation. It is non-migratory. It differs from the nominate subspecies in the very dark, dense barring on its underside and its black ear coverts.
Falco peregrinus furuitii, described by Momiyama in 1927, is found on the Izu and Ogasawara Islands south of Honshū, Japan. It is non-migratory. It is very rare and may only remain on a single island.[10] It is a dark form, resembling F. p. pealei in colour, but darker, especially on the tail.[14]
Falco peregrinus japonensis, described by Gmelin in 1788, includes F. p. kleinschmidti, F. p. pleskei, and F. p. harterti, and seems to refer to intergrades with F. p. calidus. It is found from northeast Siberia to Kamchatka (though it is possibly replaced by F. p. pealei on the coast there) and Japan. Northern populations are migratory, while those of Japan are resident. It is similar to the nominate subspecies, but the young are even darker than those of F. p. anatum.
Falco peregrinus macropus, described by Swainson in 1837, is the Australian peregrine falcon or "black-cheeked falcon". It is found in Australia in all regions except the southwest, where replaced by F. p. submelanogenys; some authorities treat the latter as a synonym of F. p. macropus.[35][42] It is non-migratory. It is similar to F. p. brookei in appearance, but is slightly smaller and the ear region is entirely black. The feet are proportionally large.[14]
Falco peregrinus madens, described by Ripley and Watson in 1963, is unusual in having some sexual dichromatism. If the Barbary falcon (see below) is considered a distinct species, it is sometimes placed therein. It is found in the Cape Verde Islands and is non-migratory;[14] it is also endangered, with only six to eight pairs surviving.[10] Males have a rufous wash on the crown, nape, ears and back; the underside is conspicuously washed pinkish-brown. Females are tinged rich brown overall, especially on the crown and nape.[14]Illustration of the subspecies F. p. minor by Keulemans, 1874
Falco peregrinus minor, first described by Bonaparte in 1850. It was formerly often known as F. p. perconfusus.[36] It is sparsely and patchily distributed throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa and widespread in Southern Africa. It apparently reaches north along the Atlantic coast as far as Morocco. It is non-migratory and dark-coloured. This is the smallest subspecies, with smaller males weighing as little as approximately 300g (11oz).
Falco peregrinus nesiotes, described by Mayr in 1941,[43] is found in Fiji and probably also Vanuatu and New Caledonia. It is non-migratory.[44]
Falco peregrinus pealei, described by Ridgway in 1873, is Peale's falcon and includes F. p. rudolfi.[45] It is found in the Pacific Northwest of North America, northwards from Puget Sound along the British Columbia coast (including the Haida Gwaii), along the Gulf of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands to the far eastern Bering Sea coast of Russia,[45] and may also occur on the Kuril Islands and the coasts of Kamchatka. It is non-migratory. It is the largest subspecies and it looks like an oversized and darker tundrius or like a strongly barred and large F. p. anatum. The bill is very wide.[46] Juveniles occasionally have pale crowns. Males weigh 700to 1,000g (1.5–2.2lb), while females weigh 1,000to 1,500g (2.2–3.3lb).[22]
Falco peregrinus peregrinator, described by Sundevall in 1837, is known as the Indian peregrine falcon, black shaheen, Indian shaheen[note 4] or shaheen falcon.[47] It was formerly sometimes known as Falco atriceps or Falco shaheen. Its range includes South Asia from across the Indian subcontinent to Sri Lanka and southeastern China. In India, the shaheen falcon is reported from all states except Uttar Pradesh, mainly from rocky and hilly regions. The shaheen falcon is also reported from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal.[39] It has a clutch size of 3 to 4 eggs, with the chicks fledging time of 48 days with an average nesting success of 1.32 chicks per nest. In India, apart from nesting on cliffs, it has also been recorded as nesting on man-made structures such as buildings and cellphone transmission towers.[39] A population estimate of 40 breeding pairs in Sri Lanka was made in 1996.[48] It is non-migratory and is small and dark, with rufous underparts. In Sri Lanka this species is found to favour the higher hills, while the migrant calidus is more often seen along the coast.[49]
Falco peregrinus peregrinus, the nominate (first-named) subspecies, described by Tunstall in 1771, breeds over much of temperate Eurasia between the tundra in the north and the Pyrenees, Mediterranean region and Alpide belt in the south.[37] It is mainly non-migratory in Europe, but migratory in Scandinavia and Asia. Males weigh 580to 750g (1.28–1.65lb), while females weigh 925to 1,300g (2.039–2.866lb).[11] It includes F. p. brevirostris, F. p. germanicus, F. p. rhenanus and F. p. riphaeus.
Falco peregrinus radama, described by Hartlaub in 1861, is found in Madagascar and the Comoros. It is non-migratory.[14]
Falco peregrinus submelanogenys, described by Mathews in 1912, is the Southwest Australian peregrine falcon. It is found in southwestern Australia and is non-migratory. Some authorities consider it a synonym of the widespread Australian subspecies F. p. macropus.[35][42]
Falco peregrinus tundrius, described by C. M. White in 1968, was at one time included in F. p. leucogenys. It is found in the Arctic tundra of North America to Greenland, and migrates to wintering grounds in Central and South America.[46] Most vagrants that reach western Europe belong to this subspecies, which was previously considered synonymous with F. p. anatum. It is the New World equivalent to F. p. calidus. It is smaller and paler than F. p. anatum; most have a conspicuous white forehead and white in ear region, but the crown and "moustache" are very dark, unlike in F. p. calidus.[46] Juveniles are browner and less grey than in F. p. calidus and paler, sometimes almost sandy, than in F. p. anatum. Males weigh 500to 700g (1.1–1.5lb), while females weigh 800to 1,100g (1.8–2.4lb).[22] Despite its current recognition as a valid subspecies, a population genetic study of both pre-decline (i.e., museum) and recovered contemporary populations failed to distinguish F. p. anatum and F. p. tundrius genetically.[50]
The Barbary falcon is a subspecies of the peregrine falcon that inhabits parts of North Africa, from the Canary Islands to the Arabian Peninsula. There was discussion concerning the taxonomic status of the bird, with some considering it a subspecies of the peregrine falcon and others considering it a full species with two subspecies.[51]
Compared to the other peregrine falcon subspecies, Barbary falcons have a slimmer body[36] and a distinct plumage pattern. Despite numbers and range of these birds throughout the Canary Islands generally increasing, they are considered endangered, with human interference through falconry and shooting threatening their well-being. Falconry can further complicate the speciation and genetics of these Canary Islands falcons, as the practice promotes genetic mixing between individuals from outside the islands with those originating from the islands. Population density of the Barbary falcons on Tenerife, the biggest of the seven major Canary Islands, was found to be 1.27 pairs/100km2, with the mean distance between pairs being 5869 ± 3338 m. The falcons were only observed near large and natural cliffs with a mean altitude of 697.6 m. Falcons show an affinity for tall cliffs away from human-mediated establishments and presence.
Barbary falcons have a red neck patch, but otherwise differ in appearance from the peregrine falcon proper merely according to Gloger's rule, relating pigmentation to environmental humidity.[52] The Barbary falcon has a peculiar way of flying, beating only the outer part of its wings as fulmars sometimes do; this also occurs in the peregrine falcon, but less often and far less pronounced.[11] The Barbary falcon's shoulder and pelvis bones are stout by comparison with the peregrine falcon and its feet are smaller.[36] Barbary falcons breed at different times of year than neighboring peregrine falcon subspecies,[11][28][29][31][36][53][54] but they are capable of interbreeding.[55] There is a 0.6–0.7% genetic distance in the peregrine falcon-Barbary falcon ("peregrinoid") complex.[31]
Ecology and behaviour
Closeup of head showing nostril tubercleSilhouette in normal flight (left) and at the start of a stoop (right)In its habitat in the Rann of Kutch, Gujarat, India
The peregrine falcon lives mostly along mountain ranges, river valleys, coastlines, and increasingly in cities.[14] In mild-winter regions, it is usually a permanent resident, and some individuals, especially adult males, will remain on the breeding territory. Only populations that breed in Arctic climates typically migrate great distances during the northern winter.[56]
The peregrine falcon reaches faster speeds than any other animal on the planet when performing the stoop,[5] which involves soaring to a great height and then diving steeply at speeds of over 320km/h (200mph), hitting one wing of its prey so as not to harm itself on impact.[4] The air pressure from such a dive could possibly damage a bird's lungs, but small bony tubercles on a falcon's nostrils are theorized to guide the powerful airflow away from the nostrils, enabling the bird to breathe more easily while diving by reducing the change in air pressure.[57] To protect their eyes, the falcons use their nictitating membranes (third eyelids) to spread tears and clear debris from their eyes while maintaining vision. The distinctive malar stripe or 'moustache', a dark area of feathers below the eyes, is thought to reduce solar glare and improve contrast sensitivity when targeting fast moving prey in bright light condition; the malar stripe has been found to be wider and more pronounced in regions of the world with greater solar radiation supporting this solar glare hypothesis.[58] Peregrine falcons have a flicker fusion frequency of 129Hz (cycles per second), very fast for a bird of its size, and much faster than mammals.[59] A study testing the flight physics of an "ideal falcon" found a theoretical speed limit at 400km/h (250mph) for low-altitude flight and 625km/h (388mph) for high-altitude flight.[60] In 2005, Ken Franklin recorded a falcon stooping at a top speed of 389km/h (242mph).[8]
The life span of peregrine falcons in the wild is up to 19 years 9 months.[61] Mortality in the first year is 59–70%, declining to 25–32% annually in adults.[11] Apart from such anthropogenic threats as collision with human-made objects, the peregrine may be killed by larger hawks and owls.[62]
An immature peregrine falcon eating its prey on the deck of a shipAn adult peregrine (F. p. calidus) consuming a common teal in Little Rann of Kutch, Gujarat, India
The peregrine falcon hunts most often at dawn and dusk, when prey are most active, but also nocturnally in cities, particularly during migration periods when hunting at night may become prevalent. Nocturnal migrants taken by peregrines include species as diverse as yellow-billed cuckoo, black-necked grebe, virginia rail, and common quail.[74] The peregrine requires open space in order to hunt, and therefore often hunts over open water, marshes, valleys, fields, and tundra, searching for prey either from a high perch or from the air.[82] Large congregations of migrants, especially species that gather in the open like shorebirds, can be quite attractive to a hunting peregrine. Once prey is spotted, it begins its stoop, folding back the tail and wings, with feet tucked.[23] Prey is typically struck and captured in mid-air; the peregrine falcon strikes its prey with a clenched foot, stunning or killing it with the impact, then turns to catch it in mid-air.[82] If its prey is too heavy to carry, a peregrine will drop it to the ground and eat it there. If they miss the initial strike, peregrines will chase their prey in a twisting flight.[83]
Although previously thought rare, several cases of peregrines contour-hunting, i.e., using natural contours to surprise and ambush prey on the ground, have been reported and even rare cases of prey being pursued on foot. In addition, peregrines have been documented preying on chicks in nests, from birds such as kittiwakes.[84] Prey is plucked before consumption.[57] A 2016 study showed that the presence of peregrines benefits non-preferred species while at the same time causing a decline in its preferred prey.[85] As of 2018, the fastest recorded falcon was at 242mph (nearly 390km/h). Researchers at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands and at Oxford University used 3D computer simulations in 2018 to show that the high speed allows peregrines to gain better maneuverability and precision in strikes.[86]
The peregrine falcon is sexually mature at one to three years of age, but in larger populations they breed after two to three years of age. A pair mates for life and returns to the same nesting spot annually. The courtship flight includes a mix of aerial acrobatics, precise spirals, and steep dives.[19] The male passes prey it has caught to the female in mid-air. To make this possible, the female actually flies upside-down to receive the food from the male's talons.
During the breeding season, the peregrine falcon is territorial; nesting pairs are usually more than 1km (0.62mi) apart, and often much farther, even in areas with large numbers of pairs.[87] The distance between nests ensures sufficient food supply for pairs and their chicks. Within a breeding territory, a pair may have several nesting ledges; the number used by a pair can vary from one or two up to seven in a 16-year period.
The peregrine falcon nests in a scrape, normally on cliff edges.[88] The female chooses a nest site, where she scrapes a shallow hollow in the loose soil, sand, gravel, or dead vegetation in which to lay eggs. No nest materials are added.[19] Cliff nests are generally located under an overhang, on ledges with vegetation. South-facing sites are favoured.[23] In some regions, as in parts of Australia and on the west coast of northern North America, large tree hollows are used for nesting. Before the demise of most European peregrines, a large population of peregrines in central and western Europe used the disused nests of other large birds.[24] In remote, undisturbed areas such as the Arctic, steep slopes and even low rocks and mounds may be used as nest sites. In many parts of its range, peregrines now also nest regularly on tall buildings or bridges; these human-made structures used for breeding closely resemble the natural cliff ledges that the peregrine prefers for its nesting locations.[10][87]
The pair defends the chosen nest site against other peregrines, and often against ravens, herons, and gulls, and if ground-nesting, also such mammals as foxes, wolverines, felids, bears, wolves, and mountain lions.[87] Both nests and (less frequently) adults are predated by larger-bodied raptorial birds like eagles, large owls, or gyrfalcons. The most serious predators of peregrine nests in North America and Europe are the great horned owl and the Eurasian eagle-owl. When reintroductions have been attempted for peregrines, the most serious impediments were these two species of owls routinely picking off nestlings, fledglings and adults by night.[89][90] Peregrines defending their nests have managed to kill raptors as large as golden eagles and bald eagles (both of which they normally avoid as potential predators) that have come too close to the nest by ambushing them in a full stoop.[91] In one instance, when a snowy owl killed a newly fledged peregrine, the larger owl was in turn killed by a stooping peregrine parent.[92]
The date of egg-laying varies according to locality, but is generally from February to March in the Northern Hemisphere, and from July to August in the Southern Hemisphere, although the Australian subspecies F. p. macropus may breed as late as November, and equatorial populations may nest anytime between June and December. If the eggs are lost early in the nesting season, the female usually lays another clutch, although this is extremely rare in the Arctic due to the short summer season. Generally three to four eggs, but sometimes as few as one or as many as five, are laid in the scrape.[93] The eggs are white to buff with red or brown markings.[93] They are incubated for 29 to 33 days, mainly by the female,[23] with the male also helping with the incubation of the eggs during the day, but only the female incubating them at night. The average number of young found in nests is 2.5, and the average number that fledge is about 1.5, due to the occasional production of infertile eggs and various natural losses of nestlings.[10][57][62]
After hatching, the chicks (called "eyases"[94]) are covered with creamy-white down and have disproportionately large feet.[87] The male (called the "tiercel") and the female (simply called the "falcon") both leave the nest to gather prey to feed the young.[57] The hunting territory of the parents can extend a radius of 19 to 24km (12 to 15mi) from the nest site.[95] Chicks fledge 42 to 46 days after hatching, and remain dependent on their parents for up to two months.[11]
The peregrine falcon is a highly admired falconry bird, and has been used in falconry for more than 3,000 years, beginning with nomads in central Asia.[87] Its advantages in falconry include not only its athleticism and eagerness to hunt, but an equable disposition that leads to it being one of the easier falcons to train.[96] The peregrine falcon has the additional advantage of a natural flight style of circling above the falconer ("waiting on") for game to be flushed, and then performing an effective and exciting high-speed diving stoop to take the quarry. The speed of the stoop not only allows the falcon to catch fast flying birds, it also enhances the falcon's ability to execute maneuvers to catch highly agile prey,[97] and allows the falcon to deliver a knockout blow with a fist-like clenched talon against game that may be much larger than itself.[20]
Additionally the versatility of the species, with agility allowing capture of smaller birds and a strength and attacking style allowing capture of game much larger than themselves, combined with the wide size range of the many peregrine subspecies, means there is a subspecies suitable to almost any size and type of game bird. This size range, evolved to fit various environments and prey species, is from the larger females of the largest subspecies to the smaller males of the smallest subspecies, approximately five to one (approximately 1500g to 300g). The males of smaller and medium-sized subspecies, and the females of the smaller subspecies, excel in the taking of swift and agile small game birds such as dove, quail, and smaller ducks. The females of the larger subspecies are capable of taking large and powerful game birds such as the largest of duck species, pheasant, and grouse.
Peregrine falcons handled by falconers are also occasionally used to scare away birds at airports to reduce the risk of bird-plane strikes, improving air-traffic safety.[98] They were also used to intercept homing pigeons during World War II.[99]
Peregrine falcons have been successfully bred in captivity, both for falconry and for release into the wild.[100] Until 2004 nearly all peregrines used for falconry in the US were captive-bred from the progeny of falcons taken before the US Endangered Species Act was enacted and from those few infusions of wild genes available from Canada and special circumstances. Peregrine falcons were removed from the United States' endangered species list in 1999. The successful recovery program was aided by the effort and knowledge of falconers – in collaboration with The Peregrine Fund and state and federal agencies – through a technique called hacking. Finally, after years of close work with the US Fish and Wildlife Service, a limited take of wild peregrines was allowed in 2004, the first wild peregrines taken specifically for falconry in over 30 years.
The development of captive breeding methods has led to peregrines being commercially available for falconry use, thus mostly eliminating the need to capture wild birds for support of falconry. The main reason for taking wild peregrines at this point is to maintain healthy genetic diversity in the breeding lines. Hybrids of peregrines and gyrfalcons are also available that can combine the best features of both species to create what many consider to be the ultimate falconry bird for the taking of larger game such as the sage-grouse. These hybrids combine the greater size, strength, and horizontal speed of the gyrfalcon with the natural propensity to stoop and greater warm weather tolerance of the peregrine.
Today, peregrines are regularly paired in captivity with other species such as the lanner falcon (F.biarmicus) to produce the "perilanner", a bird popular in falconry as it combines the peregrine's hunting skill with the lanner's hardiness, or the gyrfalcon to produce large, strikingly coloured birds for the use of falconers.
Decline due to pesticides
The peregrine falcon became an endangered species over much of its range because of the use of organochlorine pesticides, especially DDT, during the 1950s, '60s, and '70s.[18] Pesticide biomagnification caused organochlorine to build up in the falcons' fat tissues, reducing the amount of calcium in their eggshells. With thinner shells, fewer falcon eggs survived until hatching.[82][101] In addition, the PCB concentrations found in these falcons is dependent upon the age of the falcon. While high levels are still found in young birds (only a few months old) and even higher concentrations are found in more mature falcons, further increasing in adult peregrine falcons.[102] These pesticides caused falcon prey to also have thinner eggshells (one example of prey being the Black Petrels).[102] In several parts of the world, such as the eastern United States and Belgium, this species became locally extinct as a result.[11] An alternate point of view is that populations in the eastern North America had vanished due to hunting and egg collection.[38] Following the ban of organochlorine pesticides, the reproductive success of Peregrines increased in Scotland in terms of territory occupancy and breeding success, although spatial variation in recovery rates indicate that in some areas Peregrines were also impacted by other factors such as persecution.[103]
Recovery efforts
Peregrine falcon recovery teams breed the species in captivity.[104] The chicks are usually fed through a chute or with a hand puppet mimicking a peregrine's head, so they cannot see to imprint on the human trainers.[56] Then, when they are old enough, the rearing box is opened, allowing the bird to train its wings. As the fledgling gets stronger, feeding is reduced, forcing the bird to learn to hunt. This procedure is called hacking back to the wild.[105] To release a captive-bred falcon, the bird is placed in a special cage at the top of a tower or cliff ledge for some days or so, allowing it to acclimate itself to its future environment.[105]
Worldwide recovery efforts have been remarkably successful.[104] The widespread restriction of DDT use eventually allowed released birds to breed successfully.[56] The peregrine falcon was removed from the U.S.Endangered Species list on 25 August 1999.[56][106]
Some controversy has existed over the origins of captive breeding stock used by the Peregrine Fund in the recovery of peregrine falcons throughout the contiguous United States. Several peregrine subspecies were included in the breeding stock, including birds of Eurasian origin. Due to the local extinction of the eastern population of Falco peregrinus anatum, its near-extinction in the Midwest, and the limited gene pool within North American breeding stock, the inclusion of non-native subspecies was justified to optimize the genetic diversity found within the species as a whole.[107]
During the 1970s, peregrine falcons in Finland experienced a population bottleneck as a result of large declines associated with bio-accumulation of organochloride pesticides. However, the genetic diversity of peregrines in Finland is similar to other populations, indicating that high dispersal rates have maintained the genetic diversity of this species.[108]
Since peregrine falcon eggs and chicks are still often targeted by illegal poachers,[109] it is common practice not to publicise unprotected nest locations.[110]
Populations of the peregrine falcon have bounced back in most parts of the world. In the United Kingdom, there has been a recovery of populations since the crash of the 1960s. This has been greatly assisted by conservation and protection work led by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. The RSPB estimated that there were 1,402 breeding pairs in the UK in 2011.[111][112] In Canada, where peregrines were identified as endangered in 1978 (in the Yukon territory of northern Canada that year, only a single breeding pair was identified[113]), the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada declared the species no longer at risk in December 2017.[114]
Peregrines now breed in many mountainous and coastal areas, especially in the west and north, and nest in some urban areas, capitalising on the urban feral pigeon populations for food.[115] Additionally, falcons benefit from artificial illumination, which allows the raptors to extend their hunting periods into the dusk when natural illumination would otherwise be too low for them to pursue prey. In England, this has allowed them to prey on nocturnal migrants such as redwings, fieldfares, starlings, and woodcocks.[116]
In many parts of the world peregrine falcons have adapted to urban habitats, nesting on cathedrals, skyscraper window ledges, tower blocks,[117] and the towers of suspension bridges. Many of these nesting birds are encouraged, sometimes gathering media attention and often monitored by cameras.[118][note 6]
In England, peregrine falcons have become increasingly urban in distribution, particularly in southern areas where inland cliffs suitable as nesting sites are scarce. The first recorded urban breeding pair was observed nesting on the Swansea Guildhall in the 1980s.[116] In Southampton, a nest prevented restoration of mobile telephony services for several months in 2013, after Vodafone engineers despatched to repair a faulty transmitter mast discovered a nest in the mast, and were prevented by the Wildlife and Countryside Act – on pain of a possible prison sentence – from proceeding with repairs until the chicks fledged.[120]
In Oregon, Portland houses ten percent of the state's peregrine nests, despite only covering around 0.1 percent of the state's land area.[116]
Cultural significance
Due to its striking hunting technique, the peregrine has often been associated with aggression and martial prowess. The Ancient Egyptian solar deity Ra was often represented as a man with the head of a peregrine falcon adorned with the solar disk, although most Egyptologists agree that it is most likely a Lanner falcon. Native Americans of the Mississippian culture (c. 800–1500) used the peregrine, along with several other birds of prey, in imagery as a symbol of "aerial (celestial) power" and buried men of high status in costumes associating to the ferocity of raptorial birds.[121] In the late Middle Ages, the Western European nobility that used peregrines for hunting, considered the bird associated with princes in formal hierarchies of birds of prey, just below the gyrfalcon associated with kings. It was considered "a royal bird, more armed by its courage than its claws". Terminology used by peregrine breeders also used the Old French term gentil, "of noble birth; aristocratic", particularly with the peregrine.[122]
The Peregrine, by J. A. Baker,[126][127] is widely regarded as one of the best nature books in English written in the twentieth century. Admirers of the book include Robert Macfarlane,[128]Mark Cocker, who regards the book as "one of the most outstanding books on nature in the twentieth century"[129] and Werner Herzog, who called it "the one book I would ask you to read if you want to make films",[130] and said elsewhere "it has prose of the calibre that we have not seen since Joseph Conrad".[131] In the book, Baker recounts, in diary form, his detailed observations of peregrines (and their interaction with other birds) near his home in Chelmsford, Essex, over a single winter from October to April.
An episode of the hour-long TV series Starman in 1986 titled "Peregrine" was about an injured peregrine falcon and the endangered species program. It was filmed with the assistance of the University of California's peregrine falcon project in Santa Cruz.[132]
↑ Also called "Kleinschmidt's falcon", but this might equally refer to F. p. kleinschmidti, which is a junior synonym of F. p. japonensis.
↑ The shaheen (شاهین) of Arabic and Persian writers are usually Barbary falcons; those in Indian (शाहीन) and Pakistani (شاہین) sources normally refer to F. p. peregrinator.
↑ Colpocephalum falconii which was described from specimens found on the peregrine falcon, Colpocephalum subzerafae, Colpocephalum zerafae and Nosopon lucidum (all Menoponidae), Degeeriella rufa (Philopteridae), Laemobothrion tinnunculi (Laemobothriidae). All are known from other Falco species too.[19][63]
↑ Pizzey, Graham; Knight, Frank; Pizzey, Sarah (2012). The field guide to the birds of Australia. Sydney: Harper Collins Publishers. ISBN978-0-7322-9193-8.
↑ Friedmann, H. (1950). "The birds of North and Middle America". U.S. National Museum Bulletin. 50 (11): 1–793.
↑ Tunstall, Marmaduke (1771). Ornithologia Britannica: seu Avium omnium Britannicarum tam terrestrium, quam aquaticarum catalogus, sermone Latino, Anglico et Gallico redditus: cui subjuctur appendix avec alennigenas, in Angliam raro advenientes, complectens (in Latin). London: J. Dixwell.
1 2 Lehr, Jay H.; Lehr, Janet K. (2000). "6.1.11". Standard handbook of environmental science, health, and technology. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN978-0-07-038309-8.
1 2 3 Pande, Satish; Yosef, Reuven; Mahabal, Anil (2009). "Distribution of the Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus babylonicus, F. p. calidus and F. p. peregrinator) in India with some notes on the nesting habits of the Shaheen Falcon". In Sielicki, Janusz (ed.). Peregrine Falcon populations – Status and Perspectives in the 21st Century. Mizera, Tadeusz. European Peregrine Falcon Working Group and Society for the Protection of Wild animals "Falcon", Poland and Turl Publishing & Poznan University of Life Sciences Press, Warsaw-Poznan. pp.493–520. ISBN978-83-920969-6-2.
↑ Rasmussen, Pamela C.; Anderton, J.C. (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Vol.2. Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions. p.116. ISBN978-84-87334-66-5.
1 2 Ellis, David H.; Garat, Cesar P. (1983). "The Pallid Falcon Falco kreyenborgi is a colour phase of the Austral Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus cassini)". Auk. 100 (2): 269–271. doi:10.1093/auk/100.2.269.
↑ de Silva Wijeratne, Gehan; Warakagoda, Deepal; de Zylva, T.S.U. (2007). "Species description". A Photographic Guide to Birds of Sri Lanka. New Holland Publishers (UK) Ltd. pp.37, 144. ISBN978-1-85974-511-3.
↑ Brown, J.W.; de Groot, P.J.vC.; Birt, T.P.; Seutin, G.; Boag, P.T.; Friesen, V.L. (2007). "Appraisal of the consequences of the DDT-induced bottleneck on the level and geographic distribution of neutral genetic variation in Canadian peregrine falcons, Falco peregrinus". Molecular Ecology. 16 (2): 327–343. Bibcode:2007MolEc..16..327B. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03151.x. PMID17217348. S2CID40538579.
↑ Hogan, C. Michael, ed. (2010). "American Kestrel". Encyclopedia of Earth. Editor-in-chief C. Cleveland. U.S. National Council for Science and the Environment.
↑ Olmos, F.; Silva e Silva, R. (2003). Guará: Ambiente, Fauna e Flora dos Manguezais de Santos-Cubatão, Brasil (in Portuguese). São Paulo: Empresa das Artes. p.111. ISBN978-85-89138-06-2.
↑ Mikula, P., Morelli, F., Lučan, R. K., Jones, D. N., & Tryjanowski, P. (2016). Bats as prey of diurnal birds: a global perspective. Mammal Review.
↑ Bradley, Mark, and Lynn W. Oliphant. "The diet of Peregrine Falcons in Rankin Inlet, Northwest Territories: an unusually high proportion of mammalian prey." The Condor 93.1 (1991): 193–197.
1 2 Pagel, J. E., & Schmitt, N. J. (2013). American Marten Remains Within Peregrine Falcon Prey Sample in Yellowstone National Park. Journal of Raptor Research, 47(4), 419–420.
↑ Gunness, Jerome (2012). "Falco peregrinus (Peregrine Falcon)"(PDF). The Online Guide to the Animals of Trinidad and Tobago. University of the West Indies.
↑ Treleaven, R.B. (1980). "High and low intensity hunting in raptors". Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie. 54 (4): 339–345. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1980.tb01250.x.
↑ Collins, Philip; Green, Jonathan A.; Dodd, Stephen; Shaw, Peter J.A.; Halsey, Lewis G. (March 2014). "Predation of Black-legged Kittiwake Chicks Rissa tridactyla by a Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus: Insights from Time-lapse Cameras". The Wilson Journal of Ornithology. 126 (1): 158–161. doi:10.1676/13-141.1. S2CID85850583.
1 2 Aitken, G. (2004). A New Approach to Conservation. Ashgate Publishing. p.126. ISBN978-0-7546-3283-2.
↑ Henny, Charles; Nelson, Morlan W. (1981). "Decline and Present Status of Breeding Peregrine Falcons in Oregon". The Murrelet. 62 (2): 43–53. doi:10.2307/3534174. JSTOR3534174. The records of Richard M. Bond and William E. Griffee, and the recollections of Larry L. Schramm and Merlin A. McColm were critical in putting the Peregrine back off the endangered list
↑ Cade, T.J.; Burnham, W. (2003). Return of the Peregrine: A North American saga of tenacity and teamwork. The Peregrine Fund. ISBN978-0961983932.
↑ The Peregrine by J. A. Baker, Introduction by Robert Macfarlane, New York Review Books 2005 ISBN9781590171332
↑ The Peregrine, The Hill of Summer & Diaries; The Complete Works of J. A. Baker, Introduction by Mark Cocker & Edited by John Fanshawe, Collins 2015 ISBN978-0008138318
↑ "Starman: ABC-TV series shoots episode in Santa Cruz". Santa Cruz Sentinel. 24 October 1986. p.74. Retrieved 25 April 2021. This episode focuses on a falcon, which has brought the crew to Santa Cruz in the first place. They filmed Monday at UCSC's peregrine falcon project, followed by two more days at Henry Cowell [Redwoods State Park]. (Note: the episode was titled "The Falcon" during filming and retitled "Peregrine" before broadcast. An end credit gives thanks to Brian Walton and the Peregrine Fund Facility at UCSC.)
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Falcons are birds of prey in the genus Falco, which includes about 40 species. Some small species of falcons with long, narrow wings are called hobbies, and some that hover while hunting are called kestrels. Falcons are widely distributed on all continents of the world except Antarctica, though closely related raptors did occur there in the Eocene.
Falconry is the hunting of wild animals in their natural state and habitat by means of a trained bird of prey. Small animals are hunted; squirrels and rabbits often fall prey to these birds. Two traditional terms are used to describe a person involved in falconry: a "falconer" flies a falcon; an "austringer" keeps Goshawks and uses accipiters for hunting. In modern falconry, the red-tailed hawk, Harris's hawk, and the peregrine falcon are some of the more commonly used birds of prey. The practice of hunting with a conditioned falconry bird is also called "hawking" or "gamehawking", although the words hawking and hawker have become used so much to refer to petty traveling traders, that the terms "falconer" and "falconry" now apply to most use of trained birds of prey to catch game. However, many contemporary practitioners still use these words in their original meaning.
The merlin is a small species of falcon from the Northern Hemisphere, with numerous subspecies throughout North America and Eurasia. A bird of prey, the merlin breeds in the northern Holarctic; some migrate to subtropical and northern tropical regions in winter. Males typically have wingspans of 53–58 centimetres (21–23 in), with females being slightly larger. They are swift fliers and skilled hunters which specialize in preying on small birds in the size range of sparrows to doves and medium-sized shorebirds. In recent decades merlin populations in North America have been significantly increasing, with some merlins becoming so well adapted to city life that they forgo migration; in Europe, populations increased up to about 2000 but have been steady subsequently. The merlin has for centuries been well regarded as a falconry bird.
The rough-legged buzzard (Europe) or rough-legged hawk is a medium-large bird of prey. It is found in arctic and subarctic regions of North America, Europe, and Asia during the breeding season, and migrates south for the winter. Historically, it was also known as "rough-legged falcon" in such works as John James Audubon's The Birds of America.
Eleonora's falcon is a medium-sized falcon. It belongs to the hobby group, a rather close-knit number of similar falcons often considered a subgenus Hypotriorchis. The sooty falcon is sometimes considered its closest relative, but while they certainly belong to the same lineage, they do not seem to be close sister species. The English name and the species name eleonorae commemorate Eleanor of Arborea, Queen or Lady-Judge and national heroine of Sardinia, who in 1392, under the jurisdiction conferred by the Carta de Logu, became the first ruler in history to grant protection to hawk and falcon nests against illegal hunters. The genus name falco is from Late Latin falx, falcis, a sickle, referring to the claws of the bird.
The American kestrel, is the smallest and most common falcon in North America. Formerly called "sparrowhawk", a misnomer as it is a true falcon and is unrelated genetically to the Eurasian sparrowhawk, Accipiter nisus. It has a roughly two-to-one range in size over subspecies and sex, varying in size from about the weight of a blue jay to a mourning dove. It also ranges to South America and is a well-established species that has evolved into 17 subspecies adapted to different environments and habitats throughout the Americas. It exhibits sexual dimorphism in size and plumage, although both sexes have a rufous back with noticeable barring. Its plumage is colorful and attractive, and juveniles are similar in plumage to adults.
The red-necked falcon is a bird of prey in the falcon family with two disjunct populations, one in India and the other in Africa. This medium-sized falcon has bluish grey wings and upper body, a chestnut red cap with short chin straps passing through the eye. The primary feathers of the wing are black and a single black band at the tip of the tail are distinctive. The Indian subspecies Falco chicquera chicquera also known as the red-headed merlin or red-headed falcon is found mainly in the open plains of the India Subcontinent although it is thought to have occurred further west in southeastern Iran. The subspecies Falco chicquera ruficollis found in sub-Saharan Africa is sometimes treated as a full species, the rufous-necked falcon, on the basis of its well-separated geographic range and distinctive pattern. It appears very similar to the Indian form but has dark barring on the upperparts, a rufous breast band, and black moustachial and eye stripes. As in most falcons, the females are larger and falconers in India called the female turumti and the male as chatwa. They hunt in pairs mostly at dawn and dusk, capturing small birds, bats and squirrels.
Harris's hawk, formerly known as the bay-winged hawk or dusky hawk, and known in Latin America as the peuco, is a medium-large bird of prey that breeds from the southwestern United States south to Chile, central Argentina, and Brazil. This bird is sometimes reported to be at large in Western Europe, especially Britain, but it is a popular species in falconry and these records almost invariably all refer to escapes from captivity.
The lanner falcon is a medium-sized bird of prey that breeds in Africa, southeast Europe and just into Asia. It prefers open habitat and is mainly resident, but some birds disperse more widely after the breeding season. A large falcon, it preys on birds and bats. Most likely either the lanner or peregrine falcon was the sacred species of falcon to the ancient Egyptians, and some ancient Egyptian deities, like Ra and Horus, were often represented as a man with the head of a lanner falcon.
The Barbary falcon is a non-migratory subspecies of the peregrine falcon found from the Canary Islands eastwards across some parts of North Africa to the Middle East. It was formerly often treated as a distinct species Falco pelegrinoides; when so treated, it also included the central Asian peregrine falcon subspecies Falco peregrinus babylonicus as a subspecies.
The saker falcon is a large falcon species. It breeds from Central Europe eastwards across the Palearctic to Manchuria. It is a partial migrant, which means that some part of the population is migratory, some part is not. In Europe, for example, a part of the juveniles are migrating, while adults are mostly resident. The European and West Asian migratory sakers spend the winter in the Sahel region. On migration, they cross the Middle East, the Arabian Peninsula, and Pakistan, where they are exposed to illegal trapping. The migratory birds to the east from Altai Mountains spend the winter in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.
The sooty falcon is a medium-sized falcon breeding from northeastern Africa to the southern Persian Gulf region. The word sooty means to be covered in soot (ash), and is used to describe the color of the Sooty Falcon. Hence, the falcon gets its name from its color, the color of soot.
The prairie falcon is a medium-large sized falcon of western North America. It is about the size of a peregrine falcon or a crow, with an average length of 40 cm (16 in), wingspan of approximately 1 meter (40 in), and average weight of 720 g (1.6 lb). As in all falcons, females are noticeably bigger than males. Though a separate species from the peregrine, the prairie falcon is basically an arid environment divergence of the early peregrine falcon lineage, able to subsist on less food than the peregrine, and generally lighter in weight than a peregrine of similar wing span. Having evolved in a harsh desert environment with low prey density, the prairie falcon has developed into an aggressive and opportunistic hunter of a wide range of both mammal and bird prey. It will regularly take prey from the size of sparrows to approximately its own weight, and occasionally much larger. It is the only larger falcon native only to North America. It is resident from southern Canada, through western United States, and into northern Mexico. The prairie falcon is popular as a falconry bird, where with proper training it is regarded as being as effective as the more well known peregrine falcon.
The aplomado falcon is a medium-sized falcon of the Americas. The species' largest continuous range is in South America, but not in the deep interior Amazon Basin. It was long known as Falco fusco-coerulescens or Falco fuscocaerulescens, but these names are now believed to refer to the bat falcon. Its resemblance in shape to the hobbies accounts for its old name orange-chested hobby. Aplomado is an unusual Spanish word for "lead-colored", referring to the blue-grey areas of the plumage – an approximate English translation would be "plumbeous falcon". Spanish names for the species include halcón aplomado and halcón fajado ; in Brazil it is known as falcão-de-coleira.
The Taita falcon is a small falcon found in central and eastern Africa. It was first described from the Taita Hills of Kenya from which it derives its name.
The black falcon is a medium-large falcon that is endemic to Australia. It can be found in all mainland states and territories and yet is regarded as Australia's most under-studied falcon.
The Australian hobby, also known as the little falcon, is one of six Australian members of the family Falconidae. This predominantly diurnal bird of prey derives its name ‘longipennis’ from its long primary wing feathers. It occurs throughout Australia and other neighbouring countries with migrating individuals found on the islands of Indonesia and New Guinea.
Peale's falcon is a subspecies of the peregrine falcon. This subspecies was first identified by the ornithologist Robert Ridgway in 1873, named in honor of Titian Ramsay Peale. These birds are the largest subspecies of peregrines anywhere in the world.
The gyrfalcon, also abbreviated as gyr, is a bird of prey from the genus Falco and the largest species of the family Falconidae. A high-latitude species, the gyrfalcon breeds on the Arctic coasts and tundra, the islands of northern North America and the Eurosiberian region, where it is mainly a resident species. Some gyrfalcons disperse more widely after the breeding season or in winter, and individual vagrancy can take birds for long distances. Its plumage varies with location, with birds being coloured from all-white to dark brown. These colour variations are called morphs. Like other falcons, it shows sexual dimorphism, with the female much larger than the male.
The shaheen falcon is a non-migratory subspecies of the peregrine falcon found in southern Asia from India and Sri Lanka east to southeastern China. It has also been described as a migratory subspecies. Other common names for the subspecies include the black shaheen. The word shaheen in these names may also be spelled as shahin. This species was termed as the black shaheen by falconers to separate it from the true shaheen of Persian literature. Scholars of Persian and the Russian ornithologist Georgi Petrovich Dementiev have noted that the name shaheen in Persian literature actually referred to Falco peregrinus babylonicus.
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