Feral pigeons (Columba livia domestica or Columba livia forma urbana), also called city doves, city pigeons, or street pigeons, [1] [2] are descendants of domestic pigeons (Columba livia domestica) that have returned to the wild. [3] The domestic pigeon was originally bred from the wild rock dove, which naturally inhabits sea-cliffs and mountains. [4] Rock, domestic, and feral pigeons are all the same species and will readily interbreed. Feral pigeons find the ledges of buildings to be a substitute for sea cliffs, have become adapted to urban life, and are abundant in towns and cities throughout much of the world. [5]
Owing to their capacity to create large amounts of excrement and be an occasional disease vector to humans combined with crop and property damage, pigeons are largely considered a nuisance and an invasive species, often disparagingly referred to as "rats with wings". [6] [7] [8] Actions are taken in many municipalities to lower their numbers or completely eradicate them. [1] [2] [9] [10] [11] [12]
Feral pigeons are essentially the same size and shape as the original wild rock dove, but often display far greater variation in colour and pattern than their wild ancestors. The blue-barred pattern which the original wild rock dove displays is generally less common in more urban areas. Urban pigeons tend to have darker plumage than those in more rural areas. [13]
The avoidance of mating between related individuals is ordinarily regarded as adaptive since it decreases the likelihood of inbreeding depression in progeny that can be caused by the expression of deleterious recessive alleles. [14] However in feral pigeons it was found that despite detectable inbreeding depression, pairwise relatedness between mates was significantly greater than it was between nonmates. [14] This suggests that mating with close kin provides inclusive fitness benefits that outweigh the costs of inbreeding depression. [14]
 | The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject.(June 2015) |
 | This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: In the UK, general licences GL04, GL05 and GL06 were revoked April 2019 and 3 new general licences, GL34, GL35 and GL36, issued June 2019; see the talk page.(July 2019) |
In the United Kingdom, pigeons are covered under the "General Licences" and can be humanely culled by the land owner or their agent for a variety of reasons including spread of human disease. It is illegal to kill/destroy nests for any reason other than those listed under the general licences.[ discuss ]
In the U.S., the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, which protects native birds, does not apply to feral pigeons, common starlings or house sparrows, because they are introduced species. [15] It is usually legal to kill feral pigeons in the United States; methods such as poisons may be regulated, however. [16]
In India, pigeons are protected under Section 428 and Section 429 of the Indian Penal Code. Wild pigeons are further protected under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. [17]
Feral pigeons often only have small populations within cities relative to the number of humans. For example, the breeding population of feral pigeons in Sheffield, England in summer 2005 was estimated at 12,130 individuals (95% confidence interval 7757–18,970), in a city with a human population of about 500,000. [18] Despite this,[ clarify ] feral pigeons usually reach their highest densities in the central portions of cities, so they are frequently encountered by people, which may lead to conflict.
Feral pigeons are widely considered pests, and can be reservoirs and vectors of some human and livestock diseases, such as salmonellosis and tuberculosis. [19] [20] [21] However, it is rare that a pigeon will transmit a disease to humans due to their immune system. [21] Although feral pigeons pose sporadic health risks to humans, the risk is low, even for humans involved in occupations that bring them into close contact with nesting sites. Analysis revealed that feral pigeons harbored a total of 60 different human pathogenic organisms. Five pathogens were viruses, nine were bacteria, 45 were fungi, and one was a protozoan. However, only five pathogens were routinely transmitted to humans. There were single case incidences for transmission of Salmonella enterica. [22]
Pigeons often cause significant pollution with their droppings, though there is little evidence of them driving out other bird species. Pigeons are labeled an invasive species in North America by the USDA. [12]
Peregrine falcons, which are also originally cliff dwellers, have too adapted to the skyscrapers of large cities and often feed exclusively on rock doves. [23] Some cities actively encourage this through falcon breeding programs. Projects include the Unibase Falcon Project and the Victorian Peregrine Project.
Other predators of the pigeon have been recorded, including Eurasian sparrowhawks, crows and gulls. [24] [25] [26] In London, the population of Great white pelicans at St. James's Park have also been recorded killing and consuming pigeons even when alternative food sources are available. [27] [28] In cities in Western Europe, European herring gulls may occasionally hunt and consume feral pigeons in addition to other birds and small mammals. [29]
Larger birds of prey occasionally take advantage of this population as well. In New York City, the abundance of feral pigeons (and other small animals) has created such a conducive environment for predators that the red-tailed hawk has begun to return in very small numbers, including the notable Pale Male. [30]
Due to their non-selective nature, most avian poisons have been banned. In the United States market, only 4-aminopyridine (Avitrol) and DRC-1339 remain registered by EPA. DRC-1339 is limited to USDA use only, while 4-AP is a restricted-use pesticide, for use only by licensed applicators.
The use of poisons has been proven to be fairly ineffective, however, as pigeons can breed very quickly, and their numbers are determined by how much food is available; that is, they breed more often when more food is provided to them. When pigeons are poisoned, surviving birds do not leave the area. On the contrary, they are left with more food per bird than before. This attracts pigeons from outside areas as well as encouraging more breeding, and populations are re-established quickly. [31] An additional problem with poisoning is that it also kills pigeon predators. Due to this, in cities with peregrine falcon programs it is typically illegal to poison pigeons. [23]
A more effective tactic to reduce the number of feral pigeons is deprivation. [32] Cities around the world have discovered that not feeding their local birds results in a steady population decrease in only a few years. As scavengers, pigeons will still pick at garbage bags containing discarded food or at leftovers carelessly dropped on the ground, but securely disposing of foodstuffs will greatly reduce scavenger populations. Feeding of pigeons is banned in parts of Venice, Italy. [33]
Long-term reduction of feral pigeon populations can be achieved by restricting food supply, which in turn involves legislation and litter (garbage) control. Some cities have deliberately established favorable nesting places for pigeons—nesting places that can easily be reached by city workers who regularly remove eggs, thereby limiting their reproductive success. [2] In addition, pigeon populations may be reduced by bird control systems that successfully reduce nesting sites.
In 1998, in response to conservation groups and the public interest, the National Wildlife Research Center (NWRC), a USDA/APHIS laboratory in Fort Collins, Colorado, started work on nicarbazin, a promising compound for avian contraception. Originally developed for use in resident Canada geese, nicarbazin was introduced for use as a contraceptive for feral pigeons in 2007.
The active ingredient, nicarbazin, interferes with the viability of eggs by binding the ZP-3 sperm receptor site in the egg. [34] This unique contraceptive action is non-hormonal and fully reversible. [35]
Registered by the EPA as a pesticide (EPA Reg. No. 80224-1), "OvoControl P", brand of nicarbazin, is increasingly used in urban areas and industrial sites to control pigeon populations. Declared safe and humane, the new technology is environmentally benign [36] and does not represent a secondary toxicity hazard to raptors or scavengers. [37]
Avian contraception has the support of a range of animal welfare groups including the Humane Society of the United States, the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Avian contraceptives are also perceived by some civilians as an acceptable method for population control, over other methods such as prohibition to feeding or extermination. [38]
When eggs are removed in artificial pigeon houses, the interval between reproductive attempts is strongly reduced, which reduces the efficiency of the method. [39] Dummy egg nesting programs have therefore been tested in some cities with mixed results. There, the eggs are removed and replaced with dummy eggs. The real eggs are then destroyed. One such structure, in Batman Park in Melbourne, Australia, was unsuccessful in attracting pigeons and has since been removed. [40] [41] The loft used in Melbourne was on stilts, with a cage door allowing access from beneath for accessing the structure at night when the pigeons are asleep.
Estimating the population size of pigeons is necessary for monitoring and control programs of pigeons in parks and other urban areas. The methods used for estimating populations sizes are:
Many city squares have large pigeon populations, such as Washington Square Park in New York City, George Square in Glasgow, the Piazza San Marco in Venice, Dam Square in Amsterdam, The Gateway of India and Kabutarkhana in Mumbai and (prior to 2000) Trafalgar Square in London. [9]
A 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) tall statue of a pigeon by artist Paul Sloan was installed at the Rundle Mall, Adelaide, South Australia, adding to their collection of art installations, including statues of pigs. Sloan intended to "elevate the humble pigeon" with his work titled Pigeon. The mirrored stainless steel statue cost AU$174,000. While the installation has been talked up by City of Adelaide Lord Mayor Sandy Verschoor, some locals have responded negatively. [46] [47]
Columbidae is a bird family consisting of doves and pigeons. It is the only family in the order Columbiformes. These are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills that in some species feature fleshy ceres. They primarily feed on plants, and can be taxonomically divided amongst granivores, that feed mostly on the ground on seeds, and frugivores, that feed mostly on fruits, from branches. The family occurs worldwide, often in close proximity with humans, but the greatest variety is in the Indomalayan and Australasian realms.
The rock dove, rock pigeon, or common pigeon is a member of the bird family Columbidae. In common usage, it is often simply referred to as the "pigeon", although this is the wild form of the bird; the pigeons most familiar to people are the domesticated form of the wild rock dove.
The stock dove or stock pigeon is a species of bird in the family Columbidae, the doves and pigeons. It is widely distributed in the western Palearctic.
The common wood pigeon, also known as simply wood pigeon, is a large species in the dove and pigeon family (Columbidae), native to the western Palearctic. It belongs to the genus Columba, which includes closely related species such as the rock dove. It has a flexible diet, predominantly feeding on vegetable matter, including cereal crops, leading to them being regarded as an agricultural pest. Wood pigeons are extensively hunted over large parts of their range, but this does not seem to have a great impact on their population.
The bird genus Columba comprises a genus of medium to large pigeons. The terms "dove" and "pigeon" are used indiscriminately for smaller and larger Columbidae, respectively. Columba species are mostly termed "pigeons", and in many cases "wood pigeons", but some, are termed "doves". The rock dove has given rise to the majority of domesticated pigeon breeds, such as the racing pigeon and the fantail pigeon, some of which have become feral. Meanwhile, "wood pigeon" by itself usually means the common wood pigeon.
The laughing dove is a small pigeon that is a resident breeder in Africa, the Middle East, South Asia, and Western Australia where it has established itself in the wild after being released from Perth Zoo in 1898. This small long-tailed dove is found in dry scrub and semi-desert habitats where pairs can often be seen feeding on the ground. It is closely related to the spotted dove which is distinguished by a white and black chequered necklace. Other names include laughing turtle dove, palm dove and Senegal dove while in Asia the name little brown dove is often used.
The trocaz pigeon, Madeira laurel pigeon or long-toed pigeon is a pigeon which is endemic to the island of Madeira, Portugal. It is a mainly grey bird with a pinkish breast; its silvery neck patch and lack of white wing markings distinguish it from its close relative and probable ancestor, the common wood pigeon. Its call is a characteristic six-note cooing, weaker and lower-pitched than that of the wood pigeon. Despite its bulky, long-tailed appearance, this pigeon has a fast, direct flight.
The pink pigeon is a species of pigeon in the family Columbidae endemic to Mauritius. The pink pigeon nearly became extinct in the 1970s and the 1990s and is still very rare. It is the only Mascarene pigeon that has not become extinct. It was on the brink of extinction in 1991 when only 10 individuals remained, but its numbers have increased due to the efforts of the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust since 1977. While the population remains at below 500 birds as of 2011, the IUCN downlisted the species from Critically endangered to Endangered on the IUCN Red List in 2000, and then downlisted it again to Vulnerable in 2018.
A semi-feral animal lives predominantly in a feral state but has some contact and experience with humans. This may be because it was born in a domesticated state and then reverted to life in wild conditions, or it may be an animal that grew up in essentially wild conditions but has developed a comfort level with humans through feeding, receiving medical care, or similar contacts.
A clutch of eggs is the group of eggs produced by birds, amphibians, or reptiles, often at a single time, particularly those laid in a nest.
The domestic pigeon is a pigeon subspecies that was derived from the rock dove or rock pigeon. The rock pigeon is the world's oldest domesticated bird. Mesopotamian cuneiform tablets mention the domestication of pigeons more than 5,000 years ago, as do Egyptian hieroglyphics. Pigeons were most likely domesticated in the Mediterranean at least 2000–5000 years ago, and may have been domesticated earlier as a food source. Research suggests that domestication of pigeons occurred as early as 10,000 years ago.
The yellow-eyed pigeon, pale-backed pigeon, yellow-eyed dove or yellow-eyed stock dove is a member of the family Columbidae. It breeds in southern Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Afghanistan, north-east Iran and extreme north-west China. It winters in north-east Pakistan, Jammu and Kashmir and parts of Rajasthan. The bird has declined in numbers over the years, chiefly because of hunting, and it is listed as "vulnerable" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
The white-winged dove is a dove whose native range extends from the Southwestern United States through Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. They are large for doves, and can be distinguished from similar doves by the distinctive white edge on their wings. They have a blue eyering, and red eyes. The plumage is brownish-gray to gray. Juveniles are duller in color, and have brown eyes. The call is likened to English phrase "who cooks for you". There are three subspecies. It was first described by George Edwards in 1743, and given its binomial name by Linnaeus in 1756. It was moved into the genus Zenaida in 1838.
The fauna of Barbados comprises all the animal species inhabiting the island of Barbados and its surrounding waters. Barbados has more biodiversity than the other Antilles. Human activities are responsible for the change in the composition of the fauna, in particular, the replacement of native species. Species that are able to adapt to human presence have survived.
The Somali pigeon or Somali stock dove is a species of bird in the family Columbidae. It is endemic to Somalia. Because there has hardly been any research on the species, the health of the population is uncertain; however, it is believed that the species is relatively rare. The IUCN Redlist identified a possible threat to the species from the speckled pigeon. C. oliviae is found mostly on the ground, where it often forages, most frequently in rock along arid coasts.
Urban wildlife is wildlife that can live or thrive in urban/suburban environments or around densely populated human settlements such as towns.
Nicarbazin is a coccidiostat used on meat chickens. It is also used as a contraceptive for population control of Canada geese and feral pigeons.
Population control is the practice of artificially maintaining the size of any population. It simply refers to the act of limiting the size of an animal population so that it remains manageable, as opposed to the act of protecting a species from excessive rates of extinction, which is referred to as conservation biology.
Cat predation on wildlife is the result of the natural instincts and behavior of both feral and owned house cats to hunt small prey, including wildlife. Some people view this as a desirable trait, such as in the case of barn cats and other cats kept for the intended purpose of pest control in rural settings; but scientific evidence does not support the popular use of cats to control urban rat populations, and ecologists oppose their use for this purpose because of the disproportionate harm they do to native wildlife. Recognized as both invasive species and predators, cats have been shown to cause significant ecological harm across various ecosystems.
Invasive species are species that are native to foreign environments which may have important effects on a specific area's economy, ecosystem and infrastructure. These species can be introduced by natural causes or human intervention. There are many invasive species that exist around the world. One that is abundant around Puerto Rico is the lionfish. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)'s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ) and Customs and Border Protection (CBP) perform biosecurity inspections for Puerto Rico.
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