Salmonella enterica

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Salmonella enterica
Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium 01.jpg
S. enterica Typhimurium colonies on a Hektoen enteric agar plate
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Pseudomonadota
Class: Gammaproteobacteria
Order: Enterobacterales
Family: Enterobacteriaceae
Genus: Salmonella
Species:
S. enterica
Binomial name
Salmonella enterica
(ex Kauffmann & Edwards 1952) Le Minor & Popoff 1987
Subspecies

Salmonella enterica (formerly Salmonella choleraesuis) is a rod-shaped, flagellate, facultative anaerobic, Gram-negative bacterium and a species of the genus Salmonella . [1] It is divided into six subspecies, arizonae (IIIa), diarizonae (IIIb), houtenae (IV), salamae (II), indica (VI), and enterica (I). [2] A number of its serovars are serious human pathogens; many of them are (more specifically) serovars of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica.

Contents

Epidemiology

Most cases of salmonellosis are caused by food infected with S. enterica, which often infects cattle and poultry, though other animals such as domestic cats [3] [4] and hamsters [5] have also been shown to be sources of infection in humans. It primarily resides in the intestinal tract of animals and humans and can be found in feedstuff, soil, bedding, litter, and fecal matter. [6]

The primary reservoir for the pathogen is poultry and 70% of human cases are attributed with the consumption of contaminated eggs, chicken, or turkey. [7] Raw chicken eggs and goose eggs can harbor S. enterica, initially in the egg whites, although most eggs are not infected. As the egg ages at room temperature, the yolk membrane begins to break down and S. enterica can spread into the yolk. Refrigeration and freezing do not kill all the bacteria, but substantially slow or halt their growth. Pasteurizing and food irradiation are used to kill Salmonella for commercially produced foodstuffs containing raw eggs such as ice cream. Foods prepared in the home from raw eggs, such as mayonnaise, cakes, and cookies, can spread salmonellae if not properly cooked before consumption. Salmonella is the leading foodborne pathogen in the United States, causing the most deaths and having the highest cost burden. [8] It is a resilient microorganism capable of surviving long periods of time in hot and dry environments, increasing its effectiveness as a pathogen and making it able to survive the harsh environments of the gastrointestinal tract and farms. Salmonella has been found in 10% to 26% of farm environments in Tennessee, North Carolina, Alabama, California, and Washington. [9]

S. enterica genomes have been reconstructed from up to 6,500 year old human remains across Western Eurasia, which provides evidence for geographic widespread infections with systemic S. enterica during prehistory, and a possible role of the Neolithization process in the evolution of host adaptation. [10] Additional reconstructed genomes from colonial Mexico suggest S. enterica as the cause of cocoliztli , an epidemic in 16th-century New Spain. [11] In 1545, this outbreak of S. enterica spread explosively across what is now Mexico. Over the next century, the disease killed up to 90% of the Indigenous population. [12]

Children under the age of 5 years, the elderly, and immunosuppressed adults are at an increased risk of systemic dissemination of the disease and need specialized treatment to combat the disease. Drinking extra fluids and antibacterial agents such as fluoroquinolones are typical treatments. [13] Complications of the disease often appear as anemia or septicaemia, and the mortality rate is 15% once these symptoms arise. [14]

The serogroup S. Typhi is the cause of typhoid fever.

Nomenclature

S. enterica has six subspecies, and each subspecies has associated serovars that differ by antigenic specificity. [15] S. enterica has over 2500 serovars. [16] Salmonella bongori was previously considered a subspecies of S. enterica, but it is now the other species in the genus Salmonella. Most of the human pathogenic Salmonella serovars belong to the enterica subspecies. These serogroups include S. Typhi, S. Enteritidis, S. Paratyphi, S. Typhimurium, and S. Choleraesuis. The serovars can be designated as written in the previous sentence (capitalized and nonitalicized following the genus), or as follows: "S. enterica subsp. enterica, serovar Typhi". [17]

Subspecies S. e.arizonae, named after the state of Arizona, is most commonly found in cold-blooded animals (especially snakes), but can also infect turkey, sheep, and humans. It is endemic in southwestern United States. [18] The similar S. e. subsp. diarizonae also infects snakes and occasionally humans. [19]

Pathogenesis

Secreted proteins are of major importance for the pathogenesis of infectious diseases caused by S. enterica. A remarkably large number of fimbrial and nonfimbrial adhesins are present in Salmonella, and mediate biofilm formation and contact to host cells. Secreted proteins are also involved in host-cell invasion and intracellular proliferation, two hallmarks of Salmonella pathogenesis. [20]

DNA repair capability

Exposure of S. enterica to bile salts, such as sodium deoxycholate, induces the SOS DNA damage response indicating that in this organism bile salts cause DNA damage. [21] Bile salt exposure is found to increase GC to AT transition mutations and also to induce genes of the OxyR and SoxRS regulons suggesting further that bile salts specifically cause oxidative DNA damage. [21] Mutants of S. enterica that are defective in enzymes required for the process of base excision repair are sensitive to bile salts. This indicates that wild-type S. enterica uses base excision repair to remove DNA damages caused by the bile salts. [21] The RecBCD enzyme which functions in recombinational repair of DNA is also required for bile salt resistance.[ citation needed ]

Small noncoding RNA

Small nonprotein-coding RNAs (sRNA) are able to perform specific functions without being translated into proteins; 97 bacterial sRNAs from Salmonella Typhi were discovered. [22]

AsdA (antisense RNA of dnaA) is a cis-encoded antisense RNA of dnaA described in S. enterica serovar Typhi. It was discovered by deep sequencing and its transcription was confirmed by Northern blot and RACE analysis. AsdA is estimated to be about 540 nucleotides long, and represents the complementary strand to that encoding DnaA, a protein that plays a central role in the initiation of DNA replication and hence cellular division. In rich media, it is highly expressed only after reaching the stationary growth phase, but under limiting iron or osmotic stress, it is already expressed during exponential growth. Overexpression of AsdA stabilizes dnaA mRNA, increasing its levels and thereby enhancing its rate of translation. This suggests that AsdA is a regulator of DNA replication. [23]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Typhoid fever</span> Disease caused by the bacteria Salmonella Typhi

Typhoid fever, also known simply as typhoid, is a disease caused by Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi bacteria, also called Salmonella typhi. Symptoms vary from mild to severe, and usually begin six to 30 days after exposure. Often there is a gradual onset of a high fever over several days. This is commonly accompanied by weakness, abdominal pain, constipation, headaches, and mild vomiting. Some people develop a skin rash with rose colored spots. In severe cases, people may experience confusion. Without treatment, symptoms may last weeks or months. Diarrhea may be severe, but is uncommon. Other people may carry it without being affected, but are still contagious. Typhoid fever is a type of enteric fever, along with paratyphoid fever. Salmonella enterica Typhi is believed to infect and replicate only within humans.

<i>Salmonella</i> Genus of bacteria

Salmonella is a genus of rod-shaped (bacillus) gram-negative bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae. The two known species of Salmonella are Salmonella enterica and Salmonella bongori. S. enterica is the type species and is further divided into six subspecies that include over 2,650 serotypes. Salmonella was named after Daniel Elmer Salmon (1850–1914), an American veterinary surgeon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Asymptomatic carrier</span> Organism which has become infected with a pathogen but displays no symptoms

An asymptomatic carrier is a person or other organism that has become infected with a pathogen, but shows no signs or symptoms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Salmonellosis</span> Infection caused by Salmonella bacteria

Salmonellosis is a symptomatic infection caused by bacteria of the Salmonella type. It is the most common disease to be known as food poisoning, these are defined as diseases, usually either infectious or toxic in nature, caused by agents that enter the body through the ingestion of food. In humans, the most common symptoms are diarrhea, fever, abdominal cramps, and vomiting. Symptoms typically occur between 12 hours and 36 hours after exposure, and last from two to seven days. Occasionally more significant disease can result in dehydration. The old, young, and others with a weakened immune system are more likely to develop severe disease. Specific types of Salmonella can result in typhoid fever or paratyphoid fever. Typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever are specific types of salmonellosis, known collectively as enteric fever, and are, respectively, caused by salmonella typhi & paratyphi bacteria, which are only found in humans. Most commonly, salmonellosis cases arise from salmonella bacteria from animals, and chicken is a major source for these infections.

Enteric fever is a medical term encompassing two types of salmonellosis, which, specifically, are typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever. Enteric fever is a potentially life-threatening acute febrile systemic infection and is diagnosed by isolating a pathogen on culture. Typhoid fever is caused by the Salmonella enterica bacteria, serotype typhi, while paratyphoid fever is caused by the Salmonella enterica bacteria, serotype paratyphi A, B, or C. These Salmonella enterica bacteria serovars that cause enteric fever only have human hosts, as opposed to other types of salmonellosis-causing Salmonella bacteria which often have animal reservoirs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Serotype</span> Distinct variation within a species of bacteria or virus or among immune cells

A serotype or serovar is a distinct variation within a species of bacteria or virus or among immune cells of different individuals. These microorganisms, viruses, or cells are classified together based on their surface antigens, allowing the epidemiologic classification of organisms to a level below the species. A group of serovars with common antigens is called a serogroup or sometimes serocomplex.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paratyphoid fever</span> Bacterial infection caused by one of the three types of Salmonella enterica

Paratyphoid fever, also known simply as paratyphoid, is a bacterial infection caused by one of three types of Salmonella enterica. Symptoms usually begin 6–30 days after exposure and are the same as those of typhoid fever. Often, a gradual onset of a high fever occurs over several days. Weakness, loss of appetite, and headaches also commonly occur. Some people develop a skin rash with rose-colored spots. Without treatment, symptoms may last weeks or months. Other people may carry the bacteria without being affected; however, they are still able to spread the disease to others. Typhoid and paratyphoid are of similar severity. Paratyphoid and typhoid fever are types of enteric fever.

<i>Salmonella enterica <span style="font-style:normal;">subsp.</span> enterica</i> Subspecies of bacterium

Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica is a subspecies of Salmonella enterica, the rod-shaped, flagellated, aerobic, Gram-negative bacterium. Many of the pathogenic serovars of the S. enterica species are in this subspecies, including that responsible for typhoid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cytolethal distending toxin</span>

Cytolethal distending toxins are a class of heterotrimeric toxins produced by certain gram-negative bacteria that display DNase activity. These toxins trigger G2/M cell cycle arrest in specific mammalian cell lines, leading to the enlarged or distended cells for which these toxins are named. Affected cells die by apoptosis.

The 2012 outbreak of Salmonella took place in 15 places worldwide with over 2,300 strains identified.

Salmonella bongori is a pathogenic bacterium belonging to the genus Salmonella, and was earlier known as Salmonella subspecies V or S. enterica subsp. bongori or S. choleraesuis subsp. bongori. It is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium (bacillus), which causes a gastrointestinal disease called salmonellosis, characterized by cramping and diarrhoea. It is typically considered a microbe of cold-blooded animals, unlike other members of the genus, and is most frequently associated with reptiles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gordon Dougan</span>

Gordon Dougan is a Professor in the Department of Medicine at the University of Cambridge and head of pathogen research and a member of the board of management at the Wellcome Sanger Institute in Cambridge, United Kingdom. He is also a Fellow of Wolfson College, Cambridge. During his career, Dougan has pioneered work on enteric diseases and been heavily involved in the movement to improve vaccine usage in developing countries. In this regard he was recently voted as one of the top ten most influential people in the vaccine world by people working in the area.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">OSU-03012</span> Chemical compound

OSU-03012 (AR-12) is a celecoxib derivative with anticancer and anti-microbial activity. Unlike celecoxib, OSU-03012 does not inhibit COX, but inhibits several other important enzymes instead which may be useful in the treatment of some forms of cancer, When combined with PDE5 inhibitors such as sildenafil or tadalafil, OSU-03012 was found to show enhanced anti-tumour effects in cell culture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Edward Thomas Ryan</span> American microbiologist

Edward Thomas Ryan is an American microbiologist, immunologist, and physician at Harvard University and Massachusetts General Hospital. Ryan served as president of the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene from 2009 to 2010. Ryan is Professor of Immunology and Infectious Diseases at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Professor of Medicine at Harvard Medical School, and Director of Global Infectious Diseases at the Massachusetts General Hospital. Ryan's research and clinical focus has been on infectious diseases associated with residing in, immigrating from, or traveling through resource-limited areas. Ryan is a Fellow of the American Society of Microbiology, the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, the American College of Physicians, and the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cocoliztli epidemics</span> 16th century epidemics in New Spain

The Cocoliztli Epidemic or the Great Pestilence was an outbreak of a mysterious illness characterized by high fevers and bleeding which caused 5–15 million deaths in New Spain during the 16th century. The Aztec people called it cocoliztli, Nahuatl for pestilence. It ravaged the Mexican highlands in epidemic proportions, resulting in the demographic collapse of some Indigenous populations.

Salmonellosis annually causes, per CDC estimation, about 1.2 million illnesses, 23,000 hospitalizations, and 450 deaths in the United States every year.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">AsrC small RNA</span>

AsrC is a cis-encoded antisense RNA of rseC described in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi. It was discovered by deep sequencing and its transcription was confirmed by Northern blot. AsrC is an 893 bp sequence that covers all of the rseC coding region in the reverse direction of transcription. It increases the level of rseC mRNA and protein, indirectly activating RpoE. RpoE can promote flagellar gene expression and motility. Coincidentally, expression of AsrC increased bacterial swimming motility. it is possible that it is because AsrC is promoting the expression of genes related to motility.

Dipshikha Chakravortty is an Indian microbiologist, molecular pathologist and a professor at the department of Microbiology and Cell Biology at the Indian Institute of Science. Known for her studies on Salmonella and antibacterial resistance, Chakravortty is an elected fellow of the National Academy of Sciences, India, the Indian Academy of Sciences and the Indian National Science Academy. The Department of Biotechnology of the Government of India awarded her the National Bioscience Award for Career Development, one of the highest Indian science awards, for her contributions to biosciences, in 2010. Prof. Chakravortty has been elected as an prestigious INSA Council member, which will be functional from January 2024 Prof Chakravortty is among the top3% of the Scientists in India https://www.adscientificindex.com/scientist/dipshikha-chakravortty/298893

Santasabuj Das is an Indian medical doctor, molecular immunologist, bioinformatician and a scientist at the National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata. He is known for his studies on the pathogenesis of various types of infections caused by Salmonella in humans and is an elected fellow of the West Bengal Academy of Science and Technology. He is a former Fulbright scholar and a life member of the Probiotic Association of India, the Society of Biological Chemists, India and the Indian Science Congress Association. The Department of Biotechnology of the Government of India awarded him the National Bioscience Award for Career Development, one of the highest Indian science awards, for his contributions to biosciences, in 2011.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of typhoid fever</span>

In 2000, typhoid fever caused an estimated 21.7 million illnesses and 217,000 deaths. It occurs most often in children and young adults between 5 and 19 years old. In 2013, it resulted in about 161,000 deaths – down from 181,000 in 1990. Infants, children, and adolescents in south-central and Southeast Asia experience the greatest burden of illness. Outbreaks of typhoid fever are also frequently reported from sub-Saharan Africa and countries in Southeast Asia. In the United States, about 400 cases occur each year, and 75% of these are acquired while traveling internationally.

References

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  2. ↑ Desai PT, Porwollik S, Long F, Cheng P, Wollam A, Bhonagiri-Palsikar V, et al. (March 2013). Finlay BB (ed.). "Evolutionary Genomics of Salmonella enterica Subspecies". mBio. 4 (2). doi:10.1128/mBio.00579-12. PMC   3604774 . PMID   23462113.
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  20. ↑ Hensel M (2009). "Secreted Proteins and Virulence in Salmonella enterica". In Wooldridge K (ed.). Bacterial Secreted Proteins: Secretory Mechanisms and Role in Pathogenesis. Caister Academic Press. ISBN   978-1-904455-42-4.
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  22. ↑ Chinni SV, Raabe CA, Zakaria R, Randau G, Hoe CH, Zemann A, et al. (September 2010). "Experimental identification and characterization of 97 novel npcRNA candidates in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi". Nucleic Acids Research. 38 (17): 5893–5908. doi:10.1093/nar/gkq281. PMC   2943607 . PMID   20460466.
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