Eikenella | |
---|---|
Eikenella corrodens on chocolate agar after 36 hours. Notice how colonies pit the agar, which is a distinct characteristic of this species. | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | |
Phylum: | |
Class: | |
Order: | |
Family: | |
Genus: | |
Species: | E. corrodens |
Binomial name | |
Eikenella corrodens (Eiken 1958) Jackson and Goodman 1972 (Approved Lists 1980) | |
Eikenella corrodens is a Gram-negative facultative anaerobic bacillus that can cause severe invasive disease in humans. [1] It was first identified by M. Eiken in 1958, who called it Bacteroides corrodens. [2] E. corrodens is a rare pericarditis associated pathogen. [3] It is a fastidious, slow growing, human commensal bacillus, capable of acting as an opportunistic pathogen and causing abscesses in several anatomical sites, including the liver, lung, spleen, and submandibular region. [4] E. corrodens could independently cause serious infection in both immunocompetent and immunocompromised hosts. [5]
Eikenella corrodens is a pleomorphic bacillus that sometimes appears coccobacillary and typically creates a depression (or "pit") in the agar on which it is growing. Only half produce the pitting of the agar considered characteristic.[ citation needed ]. It is a slow-growing, facultative anaerobe and a gram-negative bacillus. [6]
It grows in aerobic and anaerobic conditions, but requires an atmosphere enhanced by 3–10% carbon dioxide.[ citation needed ]
The colonies are small and greyish, they produce a greenish discoloration of the underlying agar, and smell faintly of bleach (hypochlorite).[ citation needed ]
They are oxidase-positive, catalase-negative, urease-negative, and indole-negative, and reduce nitrate to nitrite.[ citation needed ]
In 2006, Azakami et al reported that the periodontal pathogen E. corrodens has an ortholog of luxS , the gene required for quorum sensing (QS) signal molecule AI-2 synthesis and that E. corrodens can produce AI-2 signals for cell-to-cell communication. They additionally reported that AI-2 has a role in biofilm formation by E. corrodens. [7] Karim et al reported that this bacterium can produce AI-2 inactivation enzyme during its stationary phase. [8] Karim et al also reported that LuxS-mediated QS may facilitate the maturation and detachment of biofilm formation in E. corrodens, which can lead to progression of periodontal disease. [9]
Eikenella corrodens is a commensal of the human mouth and upper respiratory tract. It is an unusual cause of infection and when it is cultured, it is most usually found mixed with other organisms. Infections most commonly occur in patients with cancers of the head and neck, [10] but can occur in human bite infections, especially "reverse bite", "fight bite", or "clenched fist injuries". [11] It can also cause infections in insulin-dependent diabetics and intravenous drug users who lick their needles ("needle-licker's osteomyelitis"). [12] It is one of the HACEK group of infections which are a cause of culture-negative endocarditis. In general, the HACEK organisms are responsible for approximately 3% of all cases of infective endocarditis (IE). IE due to E. corrodens is usually a result of poor oral hygiene and or periodontal infection. Manipulation of the gingival or oral mucosa for dental procedures also can predispose patients to infection since E. corrodens is a constituent of the human oral flora. [13] E. corrodens can coexists and is frequently detected with other pathogens including Staphylococcus and Streptococcus. [14]
Eikenella corrodens infections are typically indolent (the infection does not become clinically evident until a week or more after the injury). They also mimic anaerobic infection in being extremely foul-smelling.[ citation needed ]
Eikenella corrodens was mentioned in an episode of Forensic Files , in which a hotel employee punched a woman in the mouth, knocking out two of her teeth. Her tooth bacteria caused a major infection in the man's hand. [15]
For accurate diagnoses, a high degree of suspicion is required in order to properly attribute an infection to Eikenella corrodens. [16] The identification of E. corrodens may be delayed because of its slow growth in the absence of CO2. [17] E. corrodens can be treated with penicillins, cephalosporins, or tetracyclines, however due to the resistant nature of the bacteria ongoing and recurring symptoms can be expected despite rigorous and prolonged antibiotic treatment. [18] Submandibular and peritonsillar abscesses caused by E. corrodens can be treated by incision and drainage. [19] Earlier diagnosis and proper drainage surgery with effective antibiotics treatment may improve the prognosis. [20] First-choice drugs for E. corrodens infections should be third-generation cephems, carbapenems, or new quinolones. [21] It is innately resistant to macrolides (e.g., erythromycin), clindamycin, and metronidazole. It is susceptible to fluoroquinolones (e.g., ciprofloxacin) in vitro, but no clinical evidence is available to advocate their use in these infections. [22]
An abscess is a collection of pus that has built up within the tissue of the body. Signs and symptoms of abscesses include redness, pain, warmth, and swelling. The swelling may feel fluid-filled when pressed. The area of redness often extends beyond the swelling. Carbuncles and boils are types of abscess that often involve hair follicles, with carbuncles being larger.
An infection is the invasion of tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease, also known as a transmissible disease or communicable disease, is an illness resulting from an infection.
Streptococcal pharyngitis, also known as streptococcal sore throat(strep throat), is pharyngitis (an infection of the pharynx, the back of the throat) caused by Streptococcus pyogenes, a gram-positive, group A streptococcus. Common symptoms include fever, sore throat, red tonsils, and enlarged lymph nodes in the front of the neck. A headache and nausea or vomiting may also occur. Some develop a sandpaper-like rash which is known as scarlet fever. Symptoms typically begin one to three days after exposure and last seven to ten days.
Lemierre's syndrome is infectious thrombophlebitis of the internal jugular vein. It most often develops as a complication of a bacterial sore throat infection in young, otherwise healthy adults. The thrombophlebitis is a serious condition and may lead to further systemic complications such as bacteria in the blood or septic emboli.
Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive spherically shaped bacterium, a member of the Bacillota, and is a usual member of the microbiota of the body, frequently found in the upper respiratory tract and on the skin. It is often positive for catalase and nitrate reduction and is a facultative anaerobe that can grow without the need for oxygen. Although S. aureus usually acts as a commensal of the human microbiota, it can also become an opportunistic pathogen, being a common cause of skin infections including abscesses, respiratory infections such as sinusitis, and food poisoning. Pathogenic strains often promote infections by producing virulence factors such as potent protein toxins, and the expression of a cell-surface protein that binds and inactivates antibodies. S. aureus is one of the leading pathogens for deaths associated with antimicrobial resistance and the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains, such as methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), is a worldwide problem in clinical medicine. Despite much research and development, no vaccine for S. aureus has been approved.
Fusobacterium is a genus of obligate anaerobic, Gram-negative, non-sporeforming bacteria belonging to Gracilicutes. Individual cells are slender, rod-shaped bacilli with pointed ends. Fusobacterium was discovered in 1900 by Courmont and Cade and is common in the flora of humans.
Pharyngitis is inflammation of the back of the throat, known as the pharynx. It typically results in a sore throat and fever. Other symptoms may include a runny nose, cough, headache, difficulty swallowing, swollen lymph nodes, and a hoarse voice. Symptoms usually last 3–5 days, but can be longer depending on cause. Complications can include sinusitis and acute otitis media. Pharyngitis is a type of upper respiratory tract infection.
Sputum is mucus that is coughed up from the lower airways. In medicine, sputum samples are usually used for a naked eye examination, microbiological investigation of respiratory infections and cytological investigations of respiratory systems. It is crucial that the specimen does not include any mucoid material from the nose or oral cavity.
The HACEK organisms are a group of fastidious Gram-negative bacteria that are an unusual cause of infective endocarditis, which is an inflammation of the heart due to bacterial infection. HACEK is an abbreviation of the initials of the genera of this group of bacteria: Haemophilus, Aggregatibacter, Cardiobacterium, Eikenella, Kingella. The HACEK organisms are a normal part of the human microbiota, living in the oral-pharyngeal region.
Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM), also known as environmental mycobacteria, atypical mycobacteria and mycobacteria other than tuberculosis (MOTT), are mycobacteria which do not cause tuberculosis or leprosy. NTM do cause pulmonary diseases that resemble tuberculosis. Mycobacteriosis is any of these illnesses, usually meant to exclude tuberculosis. They occur in many animals, including humans and are commonly found in soil and water.
Pyelonephritis is inflammation of the kidney, typically due to a bacterial infection. Symptoms most often include fever and flank tenderness. Other symptoms may include nausea, burning with urination, and frequent urination. Complications may include pus around the kidney, sepsis, or kidney failure.
Sialadenitis (sialoadenitis) is inflammation of salivary glands, usually the major ones, the most common being the parotid gland, followed by submandibular and sublingual glands. It should not be confused with sialadenosis (sialosis) which is a non-inflammatory enlargement of the major salivary glands.
Mycobacteroides abscessus is a species of rapidly growing, multidrug-resistant, nontuberculous mycobacteria that is a common soil and water contaminant. Although M. abscessus most commonly causes chronic lung infection and skin and soft tissue infection (SSTI), it can also cause infection in almost all human organs, mostly in patients with suppressed immune systems. Amongst NTM species responsible for disease, infection caused by M. abscessus complex are more difficult to treat due to antimicrobial drug resistance.
Oritavancin, sold under the brand name Orbactiv among others, is a semisynthetic glycopeptide antibiotic medication for the treatment of serious Gram-positive bacterial infections. Its chemical structure as a lipoglycopeptide is similar to vancomycin.
Ralstonia is a genus of bacteria, previously included in the genus Pseudomonas. It is named after the American bacteriologist Ericka Ralston. Ericka Ralston was born Ericka Barrett in 1944 in Saratoga, California, and died in 2015 in Sebastopol, California. While in graduate school at the University of California at Berkeley, she identified 20 strains of Pseudomonas which formed a phenotypical homologous group, and named them Pseudomonas pickettii, after M.J. Pickett in the Department of Bacteriology at the University of California at Los Angeles, from whom she had received the strains. Later, P. pickettii was transferred to the new genus Ralstonia, along with several other species. She continued her research into bacterial pathogenesis under the name of Ericka Barrett while a professor of microbiology at the University of California at Davis from 1977 until her retirement in 1996.
Cardiobacterium hominis is a Gram-negative bacillus (rod-shaped) bacterium commonly grouped with other bacteria into the HACEK group. It is one of several bacteria that is normally present in the mouth and upper part of the respiratory tract such as nose and throat. However, it may also rarely cause endocarditis, an infection of the heart valves.
The Streptococcus anginosus group (SAG), also known as the anginosus group streptococci (AGS) or the milleri group streptococci (MGS), are a group of several species of streptococci with clinical similarities. The group is named after a principal member species, Streptococcus anginosus. The older name Streptococcus milleri is now pseudotaxonomic, as the idea that these streptococci constituted a single species was incorrect. The anginosus group streptococci are members of the viridans streptococci group. They have been implicated as etiologic agents in a variety of serious purulent infections, but because of their heterogeneous characteristics, these organisms may be unrecognized or misidentified by clinical laboratorians. The unique characteristic of them from other pathogenic streptococci, such as S. pyogenes and S. agalactiae, is their ability to cause abscesses.
Well studied Periodontal pathogens are bacteria that have been shown to significantly contribute to periodontitis.
Citrobacter koseri, formerly known as Citrobacter diversus, is a Gram-negative, non-spore-forming bacillus. It is a facultative anaerobe capable of aerobic respiration. It is motile via peritrichous flagella. It is a member of the family of Enterobacteriaceae. The members of this family are the part of the normal flora and commonly found in the digestive tracts of humans and animals. C. koseri may act as an opportunistic pathogen in individuals who are immunocompromised.
Bergeyella zoohelcum is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped, aerobic and non-motile bacterium from the genus of Bergeyella which occurs in the upper respiratory tract of dogs and cats Bergeyella zoohelcum can cause respiratory disease in cats. Bergeyella zoohelcum can cause infections after dog bites.