Cliff

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The White Cliffs of Dover White Cliffs of Dover 02.JPG
The White Cliffs of Dover
The Trango Towers in Pakistan. Their vertical faces are the world's tallest cliffs. Trango Tower center; Trango Monk center left; Trango II far left; Great Trango right. Trango Towers 2.jpg
The Trango Towers in Pakistan. Their vertical faces are the world's tallest cliffs. Trango Tower center; Trango Monk center left; Trango II far left; Great Trango right.
Europe's highest cliff, Troll Wall in Norway, a famous BASE jumping location for jumpers from around the world. Troll Wall in shadow.jpg
Europe's highest cliff, Troll Wall in Norway, a famous BASE jumping location for jumpers from around the world.

In geography and geology, a cliff or rock face is an area of rock which has a general angle defined by the vertical, or nearly vertical. Cliffs are formed by the processes of weathering and erosion, with the effect of gravity. Cliffs are common on coasts, in mountainous areas, escarpments and along rivers. Cliffs are usually composed of rock that is resistant to weathering and erosion. The sedimentary rocks that are most likely to form cliffs include sandstone, limestone, chalk, and dolomite. Igneous rocks such as granite and basalt also often form cliffs.

Contents

An escarpment (or scarp) is a type of cliff formed by the movement of a geologic fault, a landslide, or sometimes by rock slides or falling rocks which change the differential erosion of the rock layers.

Most cliffs have some form of scree slope at their base. In arid areas or under high cliffs, they are generally exposed jumbles of fallen rock. In areas of higher moisture, a soil slope may obscure the talus. Many cliffs also feature tributary waterfalls or rock shelters. Sometimes a cliff peters out at the end of a ridge, with mushroom rocks or other types of rock columns remaining. Coastal erosion may lead to the formation of sea cliffs along a receding coastline.

The British Ordnance Survey distinguishes between around most cliffs (continuous line along the topper edge with projections down the face) and outcrops (continuous lines along lower edge).

The far southwestern aspect of Nanga Parbat's Rupal face, highest cliff (rock wall/mountain face) in the world. The steepest part of the face is 2 km to the northeast. Cliffs are very common in areas where there are river banks and oceans. Northern Areas 40.jpg
The far southwestern aspect of Nanga Parbat's Rupal face, highest cliff (rock wall/mountain face) in the world. The steepest part of the face is 2 km to the northeast. Cliffs are very common in areas where there are river banks and oceans.

Etymology

Cliff comes from the Old English word clif of essentially the same meaning, cognate with Dutch, Low German, and Old Norse klif 'cliff'. [1] These may in turn all be from a Romance loanword into Primitive Germanic that has its origins in the Latin forms clivus / clevus ("slope" or "hillside"). [2] [3]

Large and famous cliffs

Vihren's 460 m north face seen from Golemiya Kazan, Pirin Mountain, Bulgaria Vihren North face.JPG
Vihren’s 460 m north face seen from Golemiya Kazan, Pirin Mountain, Bulgaria
Cliffs along the north shore of Isfjord, Svalbard, Norway. TalusConesIsfjorden.jpg
Cliffs along the north shore of Isfjord, Svalbard, Norway.
Kaliakra cape cliffs, Bulgaria Nos Kaliakra.jpg
Kaliakra cape cliffs, Bulgaria
The Matengai in Oki Islands, Japan Matengai of Kuniga Coast in Oki Island Shimane pref600.jpg
The Matengai in Oki Islands, Japan
The Cliffs of Moher in Ireland Ireland cliffs of moher2.jpg
The Cliffs of Moher in Ireland
Cliffs on the western shoreline of Sam Ford Fjord, Canada Baffin Island Northeast Coast 1997-08-07.jpg
Cliffs on the western shoreline of Sam Ford Fjord, Canada
Cliffs near Sortavala, Russia Ruskeala park.jpg
Cliffs near Sortavala, Russia
Close-up view of Verona Rupes, a 20 km high fault scarp on Miranda, a moon of Uranus. Miranda scarp.jpg
Close-up view of Verona Rupes, a 20 km high fault scarp on Miranda, a moon of Uranus.
Vratsata gorge, Vrachanski Balkan Mountains, Bulgaria Vratsata gorge.JPG
Vratsata gorge, Vrachanski Balkan Mountains, Bulgaria

Given that a cliff does not need to be exactly vertical, there can be ambiguity about whether a given slope is a cliff or not and also about how much of a certain slope to count as a cliff. For example, given a truly vertical rock wall above a very steep slope, one could count just the rock wall or the combination. Listings of cliffs are thus inherently uncertain.

Some of the largest cliffs on Earth are found underwater. For example, an 8,000 m drop over a 4,250 m span can be found at a ridge sitting inside the Kermadec Trench.

According to some sources, the highest cliff in the world, about 1,340 m high, is the east face of Great Trango in the Karakoram mountains of northern Pakistan. This uses a fairly stringent notion of cliff, as the 1,340 m figure refers to a nearly vertical headwall of two stacked pillars; adding in a very steep approach brings the total drop from the East Face precipice to the nearby Dunge Glacier to nearly 2,000 m.

The location of the world's highest sea cliffs depends also on the definition of 'cliff' that is used. Guinness World Records states it is Kalaupapa, Hawaii, [5] at 1,010 m high. Another contender is the north face of Mitre Peak, which drops 1,683 m to Milford Sound, New Zealand. [6] These are subject to a less stringent definition, as the average slope of these cliffs at Kaulapapa is about 1.7, corresponding to an angle of 60 degrees, and Mitre Peak is similar. A more vertical drop into the sea can be found at Maujit Qaqarssuasia (also known as the 'Thumbnail') which is situated in the Torssukátak fjord area at the very tip of South Greenland and drops 1,560 m near-vertically. [7]

Considering a truly vertical drop, Mount Thor on Baffin Island in Arctic Canada is often considered the highest at 1370 m (4500 ft) high in total (the top 480 m (1600 ft) is overhanging), and is said to give it the longest vertical drop on Earth at 1,250 m (4,100 ft). However, other cliffs on Baffin Island, such as Polar Sun Spire in the Sam Ford Fjord, or others in remote areas of Greenland may be higher.

The highest cliff in the solar system may be Verona Rupes, an approximately 20 km (12 mi) high fault scarp on Miranda, a moon of Uranus.

List

The following is an incomplete list of cliffs of the world.

Africa

Above Sea

Above Land

America

North

Mount Thor, Baffin Island, Nunavut, Canada, commonly regarded as the highest vertical drop on Earth Mount Thor.jpg
Mount Thor, Baffin Island, Nunavut, Canada, commonly regarded as the highest vertical drop on Earth
Southwest face of El Capitan from Yosemite Valley Yosemite El Capitan.jpg
Southwest face of El Capitan from Yosemite Valley
The face of Notch Peak at sunset NotchPeakSunset.JPG
The face of Notch Peak at sunset
Ketil's west face in Tasermiut, Greenland Ketil West.JPG
Ketil's west face in Tasermiut, Greenland

Several big granite faces in the Arctic region vie for the title of 'highest vertical drop on Earth', but reliable measurements are not always available. The possible contenders include (measurements are approximate):

Mount Thor, Baffin Island, Canada; 1,370 m (4,500 ft) total; top 480 m (1600 ft) is overhanging. This is commonly regarded as being the largest vertical drop on Earth [2] [ citation needed ]ot:leapyear at 1,250 m (4,100 ft).

  1. The sheer north face of Polar Sun Spire, in the §74:MTAtoFa

    of Baffin Island, rises 4,300 ft above the flat frozen fjord, although the lower portion of the face breaks from the vertical wall with a series of ledges and buttresses. [8]

    1. Ketil's and its neighbor Ulamertorsuaq's west faces in Tasermiut, Greenland have been reported as over 1,000 m high. [9] [10] [11] Another relevant cliff in Greenland is Agdlerussakasit's Thumbnail. [12]

    Other notable cliffs include:

    South

    Salto Angel from Isla Raton, Venezuela. Salto Angel from Raton.JPG
    Salto Angel from Isla Ratón, Venezuela.

    Asia

    Above Sea

    Above Land

    Europe

    Above Sea

    Above Land

    Submarine

    Oceania

    Above Sea

    Above Land

    As habitat

    Cliff landforms provide unique habitat niches to a variety of plants and animals, whose preferences and needs are suited by the vertical geometry of this landform type. For example, a number of birds have decided affinities for choosing cliff locations for nesting, [21] often driven by the defensibility of these locations as well as absence of certain predators. Humans have also inhabited cliff dwellings.

    Flora

    The population of the rare Borderea chouardii , during 2012, existed only on two cliff habitats within western Europe. [22]

    See also

    Related Research Articles

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">K2</span> 2nd-highest mountain on Earth

    K2, at 8,611 metres (28,251 ft) above sea level, is the second-highest mountain on Earth, after Mount Everest at 8,849 metres (29,032 ft). It lies in the Karakoram range, partially in the Gilgit-Baltistan region of Pakistan-administered Kashmir and partially in the China-administered Trans-Karakoram Tract in the Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County of Xinjiang.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Karakoram</span> Major mountain range spanning the borders between Pakistan, India and China

    The Karakoram is a mountain range in the Kashmir region spanning the border of Pakistan, China, and India, with the northwestern extremity of the range extending to Afghanistan and Tajikistan. Most of the Karakoram mountain range falls under the jurisdiction of Gilgit-Baltistan, which is controlled by Pakistan. Its highest peak, K2, is located in Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. It begins in the Wakhan Corridor (Afghanistan) in the west, encompasses the majority of Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan and extends into Ladakh and Aksai Chin. It is part of the larger Trans-Himalayan mountain ranges.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Chogolisa</span> Mountain in Pakistan

    Chogolisa is a trapezoidal mountain located in the Karakoram range within the Gilgit-Baltistan region of Pakistan. It is situated near the Baltoro Glacier in the Concordia region, which is renowned for hosting some of the world's tallest peaks.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Terich Mir</span> Highest mountain of the Hindu Kush range, located in Pakistan

    Terich Mir is the highest mountain of the Hindu Kush range, and the highest mountain in the world outside of the Himalayas–Karakoram range, at 7,708 meters (25,289 ft) above sea level. It is located in the Chitral District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Karakoram Highway</span> International highway running through Pakistan and China

    The Karakoram Highway, also known as the KKH, National Highway 35, N-35, and the China–Pakistan Friendship Highway, is a 1,300 km (810 mi) national highway which extends from Hasan Abdal in the Punjab province of Pakistan to the Khunjerab Pass in Gilgit-Baltistan, where it crosses into China and becomes China National Highway 314. The highway connects the Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa plus Gilgit-Baltistan with China's Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. The highway is a popular tourist attraction and is one of the highest paved roads in the world, passing through the Karakoram mountain range, at 36°51′00″N75°25′40″E at maximum elevation of 4,714 m (15,466 ft) near Khunjerab Pass. Due to its high elevation and the difficult conditions under which it was constructed, it is often referred to as the Eighth Wonder of the World. The highway is also a part of the Asian Highway AH4.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Trango Towers</span> Granite spires in mountains in Pakistan

    The Trango Towers are a family of rock towers situated in the Gilgit-Baltistan region, in the northern part of Pakistan. The Towers have some of the world's largest cliffs and offer some of the most challenging big wall climbing opportunities. Each year, climbers from around the world embark on expeditions to the Karakoram region to climb these granite faces. The Trango Towers are situated to the north of the Baltoro Glacier and are part of the Baltoro Muztagh, which is a sub-range within the Karakoram mountain range. The highest point within the group is the summit of Great Trango Tower at 6,286 m (20,623 ft), the east face of which features the world's greatest nearly vertical drop.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Baltoro Glacier</span> Glacier in Pakistan

    The Baltoro Glacier is a glacier located in the Shigar District of the Gilgit-Baltistan region in Pakistan. It stretches for 63 km (39 mi) in length. It is one of the longest glaciers outside the polar regions. It is home to some of the world’s highest mountains. It runs through the Karakoram mountain range, close to K2, which is the second highest peak in the world, reaching an elevation of 8,611 meters. Within a 20-kilometer radius, there are three more mountains with elevations exceeding 8,000 meters.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Mount Thor</span> Mountain in Nunavut, Canada

    Mount Thor, officially gazetted as Thor Peak, is a mountain with an elevation of 1,675 m (5,495 ft) located in Auyuittuq National Park, on Baffin Island, Nunavut, Canada. The mountain is located 46 km (29 mi) northeast of Pangnirtung and features Earth's greatest vertical drop of 1,200 m (4,100 ft), with the cliff overhanging at an average angle of 105 degrees. Despite its remoteness, this feature makes the mountain a popular rock climbing site. Camping is allowed, with several designated campsites located throughout the length of Akshayuk Pass. For climbers looking to scale Mount Thor, there is an established campsite a few kilometres north of its base, complete with windbreaks and emergency shelters.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Baltoro Muztagh</span> Mountain range in Pakistan/China

    The Baltoro Muztagh is a subrange within the Karakoram mountain range. It spans across the Baltistan region of Gilgit-Baltistan, which is the northernmost political entity of Pakistan, and extends into Xinjiang, China. The crest of this range also serves as part of the border between Pakistan and China.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Rakaposhi-Haramosh Mountains</span> Subrange of the Karakoram mountain range

    The Rakaposhi-Haramosh Mountains are a subrange of the Karakoram range. They are located in the Bagrot Valley in the Gilgit and Nagar districts of the Gilgit-Baltistan region, Pakistan.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Askole</span> Human settlement

    Askole, Askoli, or Askoly is a small town located in Braldo Valley, in the Gilgit–Baltistan region of Pakistan. Askole lies in a remote region of the Karakoram mountains 3,040 meters above sea level. It is notable for being the final settlement before the wilderness of the high Karakorams begins.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Trango Glacier</span> Glacier in Pakistan

    Trango Glacier is a glacier in the Baltoro Muztagh range of the Karakoram in Baltistan, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan.

    Hainablak Glacier is a glacier near Trango Tower mountain in Baltistan, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Central Karakoram National Park</span> National Park in Pakistan

    Central Karakoram National Park is a national park located in Skardu district of Gilgit-Baltistan in Pakistan. It encompasses some of the world’s highest peaks and largest glaciers. Internationally renowned for mountaineering, rock climbing and trekking opportunities, it covers an area of about 10,000 sq. km and contains the greatest concentration of some of the tallest mountains on Earth. It has four peaks over 8,000 m including K2 (8611 m), Gasherbrum-I (8068 m), Gasherbrum-II (8035 m) and Broad Peak (8051 m), and sixty peaks higher than 7,000 m. The park was placed on the World Heritage Site Tentative List in 2016.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Geography of Gilgit-Baltistan</span>

    Gilgit-Baltistan is an administrative territory of Pakistan in the northern part of the country. It was given self-governing status on August 29, 2009. Gilgit-Baltistan comprises 14 districts within three divisions. The four districts of Skardu Kharmang Shigar and Ghanche are in the Baltistan Division, four districts of Gilgit Ghizer Hunza and Nagar districts which were carved out of Gilgit District are in the Gilgit Division and the third division is Diamir, comprising Chilas and Astore. The main political centres are the towns of Gilgit and Skardu.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Tourism in Gilgit-Baltistan</span>

    Tourism in Gilgit-Baltistan, an administered territory of Pakistan, focuses on its access to various mountain ranges and alpine terrain. Various tourist destinations attract millions of travelers from within Pakistan. On the other hand, tourists from other countries also routinely visit GB. An estimated 1.72 million tourists visited the region in 2017 according to the Pakistan Tourism Development Corporation (PTDC). Travelers had contributed Rs.300 million to the local economy in 2017. The authorities were expecting 2.5 million tourists in 2018 which would have meant an additional Rs.450 million to the economy.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Kutiah Lungma Glacier</span> Glacier in Pakistan

    Kutiah Lungma Glacier is a glacier that stretches for approximately 12 km in length and has a width of about 3 km. It is situated within the Karakoram mountain range in the Stak Valley of District Skardu, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. This glacier is located in the Stak Valley, which is sometimes referred to as Staq, and it falls within the subdivision of Roundu in district Skardu, Gilgit-Baltistan.

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