Bispectral index

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BIS monitor BIS JPN.jpg
BIS monitor

Bispectral index (BIS) is one of several technologies used to monitor depth of anesthesia. BIS monitors are used to supplement Guedel's classification system for determining depth of anesthesia. Titrating anesthetic agents to a specific bispectral index during general anesthesia in adults (and children over 1 year old) allows the anesthetist to adjust the amount of anesthetic agent to the needs of the patient, possibly resulting in a more rapid emergence from anesthesia. Use of the BIS monitor could reduce the incidence of intraoperative awareness during anaesthesia. [1] The exact details of the algorithm used to create the BIS index have not been disclosed by the company that developed it.

Contents

BIS cannot be used as the sole monitor of anaesthesia, as it is affected by several other factors, including the anaesthetic drugs used (BIS is relatively insensitive to agents such as ketamine and nitrous oxide), and muscle movement or artefact from surgical equipment. BIS is used as an adjunct to monitoring under anaesthesia - its use has been shown to reduce overall dose of anaesthetic agent used and therefore may improve recovery time from anaesthesia. [2]

History

The BIS was introduced by Aspect Medical Systems, Inc. in 1994 [3] as a novel measure of the level of consciousness by algorithmic analysis of a patient's electroencephalogram during general anesthesia. This is used in conjunction with other physiologic monitoring such as electromyography to estimate the depth of anesthesia in order to minimize the possibility of intraoperative awareness. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) cleared BIS monitoring in 1996 for assessing the hypnotic effects of general anesthetics and sedatives. The FDA further stated in 2003 that "...A reduction in awareness provides a public health benefit, in that BIS technology can now provide anesthestists with a way to reduce this often debilitating, yet preventable medical error". Aspect Medical was acquired by Covidien in 2009. [4]

Calculation

Bispectral index monitor indicating a nearly isoelectric pattern of electroencephalographic activity. BIS Monitor-Burst Suppression.JPG
Bispectral index monitor indicating a nearly isoelectric pattern of electroencephalographic activity.

The bispectral index is a statistically based, empirically derived complex parameter. It is a weighted sum of several electroencephalographic subparameters, including a time domain, frequency domain, and high order spectral subparameters. [5] The BIS monitor provides a single dimensionless number, which ranges from 0 (equivalent to EEG silence) to 100. A BIS value between 40 and 60 indicates an appropriate level for general anesthesia, as recommended by the manufacturer. The BIS monitor thus gives the anesthetist an indication of how "deep" under anesthesia the patient is. [6] Additionally, BIS values less than 40 for greater than 5 minutes have been associated with increased risk of stroke (hazard ratio of 3.23), MI (1.94) and death (1.41). [7]

The essence of BIS is to take a complex signal (the EEG), analyse it, and process the result into a single number. Several other systems claim to be able to perform the same thing. The recent availability of cheap, fast computer processors has enabled great advances in this field. When a subject is awake, the cerebral cortex is very active, and the EEG reflects vigorous activity. When asleep or under general anesthesia, the pattern of activity changes. Overall, there is a change from higher-frequency signals to lower-frequency signals (which can be shown by Fourier analysis), and there is a tendency for signal correlation from different parts of the cortex to become more random.

As with other types of EEG analysis, the calculation algorithm that the BIS monitor uses is proprietary, although it has been successfully reverse engineered. [8]

Limitations

Some of the limitations of this form of processed EEG monitoring are:

Benefits

BIS monitoring is widely used in operating rooms and ICUs, as well as in emergency departments. Some of the benefits that have been attributed to it include: [9]

Relevance

The BIS is an electroencephalogram-derived multivariant scale that, when a drug such a propofol is used, correlates with the metabolic rate of glucose. [15] Both loss of consciousness and awakening from anesthesia are correlated with this scale. [16] The efficacy of BIS index monitoring is not without controversy. [17]

Some controlled studies have found that using the BIS reduced the incidence of memory but this was not confirmed in several very large multicenter studies on awareness. [14] [18] A Cochrane review in 2014 [19] found that "Four studies (7761 patients) that used clinical signs as a guide to anaesthetic administration in standard practice, as the control group, demonstrated a significant reduction in the risk of awareness with BIS monitoring. Four studies (26,530 patients) compared BIS monitoring with end tidal anaesthetic gas (ETAG) monitoring as a guide to management of anaesthesia and they did not demonstrate any difference in terms of intraoperative awareness". The Sociedad de Anestesiología Reanimación y Terapéutica del Dolor de Madrid recommends monitoring of anesthetic depth in accordance with literature-based evidence. BIS, however, is not explicitly endorsed. In fact, they cite an American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) statement saying that the decision for cerebral function monitoring should be made on an individual basis. [20]

The bispectral index has not been proven to measure the level of consciousness, independently of the cause of reduced consciousness (whether this be drugs, metabolic disease, hypothermia, head trauma, hypovolemia, natural sleep and so on).[ citation needed ] Not all unconscious patients will have a low BIS value, although the general clinical state may be very different from one to the other, and the prognosis may also differ.[ citation needed ] Furthermore, not all conscious patients will have a high BIS value. [21]

The bispectral index is prone to artifacts. Some conscious patients who are administered neuromuscular blocking agents such as succinylcholine may have low bispectral index scores; thus, the BIS may fail to detect consciousness in such patients. [22] Its numbers cannot be relied upon in all situations, including brain death, circulatory arrest or hypothermia. [23] [24] [25] [26] A monitor of the Autonomic Nervous System (the first commercial monitor was the ANEMON-I monitor developed by former Swiss company Medical System SA based on the patent WO1997037586 [27] ) may be more appropriate for purposely assessing the reaction to noxious stimuli during surgery. However, a monitor of the central nervous system may be more appropriate for monitoring consciousness. After the publication of the B-Aware Trial [28] ensuring that the BIS index was below 60 was suggested to reduce the risk of anesthesia awareness during surgery for a 'high risk' group, when using a conventional anaesthetic technique. [29] However, this result was not reproduced by a recently published randomized control trial, the "B-Unaware Trial". [18] In it, the use of BIS monitoring was not associated with a lower incidence of anesthesia awareness. In some cases, the BIS may underestimate the depth of anesthesia, leading the anesthetist to administer a higher than necessary dose of anesthetic agent(s). In such cases, the patient may be anesthetized to a lower BIS level than is necessary for the surgery or procedure—this is called "treating the BIS", and may result in a deeper level of anesthesia than required).[ citation needed ]

The monitoring of EEG in ICU patients has been employed in one form or other for more than two decades. BIS monitoring is also being used during transport of critically ill patients in ambulances, helicopters and other vehicles.

Some studies show a greater incidence of intra-operative awareness in children, when compared to adults. [30] The correlation between bispectral index in children over one year and state of consciousness has already been proven, although in younger patients the monitor is unreliable because of the differences between immature infant EEG patterns and the adult EEG patterns that the BIS algorithm utilises. [31] [32]

Specifically for intraoperative awareness, according to a 2013 article in The Atlantic , "Today, the BIS monitor has become the most controversial medical device in anesthesiology, if not all of surgery." [33]

See also

Related Research Articles

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anesthesia</span> State of medically-controlled temporary loss of sensation or awareness

Anesthesia or anaesthesia is a state of controlled, temporary loss of sensation or awareness that is induced for medical or veterinary purposes. It may include some or all of analgesia, paralysis, amnesia, and unconsciousness. An individual under the effects of anesthetic drugs is referred to as being anesthetized.

Dissociatives, colloquially dissos, are a subclass of hallucinogens which distort perception of sight and sound and produce feelings of detachment – dissociation – from the environment and/or self. Although many kinds of drugs are capable of such action, dissociatives are unique in that they do so in such a way that they produce hallucinogenic effects, which may include dissociation, a general decrease in sensory experience, hallucinations, dream-like states or anesthesia. Despite most dissociatives’ main mechanism of action being tied to NMDA receptor antagonism, some of these substances, which are nonselective in action and affect the dopamine and/or opioid systems, may be capable of inducing more direct and repeatable euphoria or symptoms which are more akin to the effects of typical “hard drugs” or common drugs of abuse. This is likely why dissociatives are considered to be addictive with a fair to moderate potential for abuse, unlike psychedelics. Despite some dissociatives, such as phencyclidine (PCP) possessing stimulating properties, most dissociatives seem to have a general depressant effect and can produce sedation, respiratory depression, nausea, disorientation, analgesia, anesthesia, ataxia, cognitive and memory impairment as well as amnesia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Isoflurane</span> General anaesthetic given via inhalation

Isoflurane, sold under the brand name Forane among others, is a general anesthetic. It can be used to start or maintain anesthesia; however, other medications are often used to start anesthesia, due to airway irritation with isoflurane. Isoflurane is given via inhalation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sevoflurane</span> Inhalational anaesthetic

Sevoflurane, sold under the brand name Sevorane, among others, is a sweet-smelling, nonflammable, highly fluorinated methyl isopropyl ether used as an inhalational anaesthetic for induction and maintenance of general anesthesia. After desflurane, it is the volatile anesthetic with the fastest onset. While its offset may be faster than agents other than desflurane in a few circumstances, its offset is more often similar to that of the much older agent isoflurane. While sevoflurane is only half as soluble as isoflurane in blood, the tissue blood partition coefficients of isoflurane and sevoflurane are quite similar. For example, in the muscle group: isoflurane 2.62 vs. sevoflurane 2.57. In the fat group: isoflurane 52 vs. sevoflurane 50. As a result, the longer the case, the more similar will be the emergence times for sevoflurane and isoflurane.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">General anaesthesia</span> Medically induced loss of consciousness

General anaesthesia (UK) or general anesthesia (US) is a method of medically inducing loss of consciousness that renders a patient unarousable even with painful stimuli. This effect is achieved by administering either intravenous or inhalational general anaesthetic medications, which often act in combination with an analgesic and neuromuscular blocking agent. Spontaneous ventilation is often inadequate during the procedure and intervention is often necessary to protect the airway. General anaesthesia is generally performed in an operating theater to allow surgical procedures that would otherwise be intolerably painful for a patient, or in an intensive care unit or emergency department to facilitate endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation in critically ill patients.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anesthesiology</span> Medical specialty concerned with anesthesia and perioperative care

Anesthesiology, anaesthesiology, or anaesthesia is the medical specialty concerned with the total perioperative care of patients before, during and after surgery. It encompasses anesthesia, intensive care medicine, critical emergency medicine, and pain medicine. A physician specialized in anesthesiology is called an anesthesiologist, anaesthesiologist, or anaesthetist, depending on the country. In some countries, the terms are synonymous, while in other countries they refer to different positions, and anesthetist is only used for non-physicians, such as nurse anesthetists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anesthetic</span> Drug that causes anesthesia

An anesthetic or anaesthetic is a drug used to induce anesthesia ⁠— ⁠in other words, to result in a temporary loss of sensation or awareness. They may be divided into two broad classes: general anesthetics, which result in a reversible loss of consciousness, and local anesthetics, which cause a reversible loss of sensation for a limited region of the body without necessarily affecting consciousness.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Desflurane</span> Chemical compound

Desflurane (1,2,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl difluoromethyl ether) is a highly fluorinated methyl ethyl ether used for maintenance of general anesthesia. Like halothane, enflurane, and isoflurane, it is a racemic mixture of (R) and (S) optical isomers (enantiomers). Together with sevoflurane, it is gradually replacing isoflurane for human use, except in economically undeveloped areas, where its high cost precludes its use. It has the most rapid onset and offset of the volatile anesthetic drugs used for general anesthesia due to its low solubility in blood.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Remifentanil</span> Synthetic opioid analgesic

Remifentanil, marketed under the brand name Ultiva is a potent, short-acting synthetic opioid analgesic drug. It is given to patients during surgery to relieve pain and as an adjunct to an anaesthetic. Remifentanil is used for sedation as well as combined with other medications for use in general anesthesia. The use of remifentanil has made possible the use of high-dose opioid and low-dose hypnotic anesthesia, due to synergism between remifentanil and various hypnotic drugs and volatile anesthetics.

Entropy monitoring is a method of assessing the effect of certain anaesthetic drugs on the brain's EEG. It was commercially developed by Datex-Ohmeda, which is now part of GE Healthcare.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chloroprocaine</span> Chemical compound

Chloroprocaine is a local anesthetic given by injection during surgical procedures and labor and delivery. Chloroprocaine vasodilates; this is in contrast to cocaine which vasoconstricts. Chloroprocaine is an ester anesthetic.

Postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) is a decline in cognitive function that may last from 1–12 months after surgery, or longer. In some cases, this disorder may persist for several years after major surgery. POCD is distinct from emergence delirium. Its causes are under investigation and occurs commonly in older patients and those with pre-existing cognitive impairment.

Guedel's classification is a means of assessing of depth of general anesthesia introduced by Arthur Ernest Guedel (1883-1956) in 1920.

The Outcomes Research Consortium is an international clinical research group that focuses on the perioperative period, along with critical care and pain management. The Consortium's aim is to improve the quality of care for surgical, critical care, and chronic pain patients and to "Provide the evidence for evidence-based practice." Members of the Consortium are especially interested in testing simple, low-risk, and inexpensive treatments that have the potential to markedly improve patients' surgical experiences.

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Total intravenous anesthesia (TIVA) refers to the intravenous administration of anesthetic agents to induce a temporary loss of sensation or awareness. The first study of TIVA was done in 1872 using chloral hydrate, and the common anesthetic agent propofol was licensed in 1986. TIVA is currently employed in various procedures as an alternative technique of general anesthesia in order to improve post-operative recovery.

References

  1. ↑ "Depth of anaesthesia monitors – Bispectral Index (BIS), E-Entropy and Narcotrend-Compact M - Guidance and guidelines - NICE". www.nice.org.uk.
  2. ↑ Lewis SR, Pritchard MW, Fawcett LJ, Punjasawadwong Y (September 2019). "Bispectral index for improving intraoperative awareness and early postoperative recovery in adults". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 9 (9): CD003843. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003843.pub4. PMC   6763215 . PMID   31557307.
  3. ↑ Sigl JC, Chamoun NG (November 1994). "An introduction to bispectral analysis for the electroencephalogram". Journal of Clinical Monitoring. 10 (6): 392–404. doi:10.1007/bf01618421. PMID   7836975. S2CID   1360811.
  4. ↑ "Covidien Completes Acquisition Aspect Medical Systems". businesswire.com.
  5. ↑ Kaul HL, Bharti N (2002). "Monitoring depth of anaesthesia" (PDF). Indian J Anaesth. 46 (4): 323–332. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 April 2006. Retrieved 3 August 2010.
  6. ↑ Kissin I (May 2000). "Depth of anesthesia and bispectral index monitoring". Anesthesia and Analgesia. 90 (5): 1114–1117. doi:10.1097/00000539-200005000-00021. PMID   10781463. S2CID   37411987.
  7. ↑ Leslie K, Myles PS, Forbes A, Chan MT (March 2010). "The effect of bispectral index monitoring on long-term survival in the B-aware trial". Anesthesia and Analgesia. 110 (3): 816–22. doi: 10.1213/ANE.0b013e3181c3bfb2 . PMID   19910621. S2CID   45833138.
  8. ↑ Connor CW (October 2022). "Open Reimplementation of the BIS Algorithms for Depth of Anesthesia". Anesthesia and Analgesia. 135 (4): 855–864. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000006119. PMC  9481655. PMID   35767469.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 Mathur S, Patel J, Goldstein S, Jain A (2022). "Bispectral Index". StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. PMID   30969631.
  10. ↑ Mathews DM (2013). "Chapter 44. processed eeg monitoring.". In Atchabahian A, Gupta R (eds.). The Anesthesia Guide. McGraw Hill. ISBN   978-0-07-176049-2.
  11. ↑ Hans P, Dewandre PY, Brichant JF, Bonhomme V (March 2005). "Comparative effects of ketamine on Bispectral Index and spectral entropy of the electroencephalogram under sevoflurane anaesthesia". British Journal of Anaesthesia. 94 (3): 336–340. doi: 10.1093/bja/aei047 . PMID   15591328.
  12. ↑ Dao H (2014). Awareness under general anesthesia. Freeman B.S., & Berger J.S.(Eds.), Anesthesiology Core Review: Part One Basic Exam. McGraw Hill. https://accessanesthesiology.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=974&sectionid=61588541
  13. ↑ Bowdle TA (2009). "Chapter 43 - Can We Prevent Recall during Anesthesia?". In Fleisher LA (ed.). Evidence-Based Practice of Anesthesiology (Second ed.). W.B. Saunders. pp. 291–295. doi:10.1016/B978-1-4160-5996-7.00043-2. ISBN   978-1-4160-5996-7.
  14. 1 2 McCulloch TJ (April 2005). "Use of BIS monitoring was not associated with a reduced incidence of awareness". Anesthesia and Analgesia. 100 (4): 1221. doi:10.1213/01.ane.0000149022.48021.24. PMID   15781568.
  15. ↑ Alkire MT (August 1998). "Quantitative EEG correlations with brain glucose metabolic rate during anesthesia in volunteers". Anesthesiology. 89 (2): 323–333. doi: 10.1097/00000542-199808000-00007 . PMID   9710389. S2CID   26237264.
  16. ↑ Flaishon R, Windsor A, Sigl J, Sebel PS (March 1997). "Recovery of consciousness after thiopental or propofol. Bispectral index and isolated forearm technique". Anesthesiology. 86 (3): 613–619. doi:10.1097/00000542-199703000-00013. PMID   9066327. S2CID   22800330.
  17. ↑ Rosow C, Manberg PJ (December 2001). "Bispectral index monitoring". Anesthesiology Clinics of North America. 19 (4): 947–66, xi. doi:10.1016/s0889-8537(01)80018-3. PMID   11778388.
  18. 1 2 Avidan MS, Zhang L, Burnside BA, Finkel KJ, Searleman AC, Selvidge JA, et al. (March 2008). "Anesthesia awareness and the bispectral index". The New England Journal of Medicine. 358 (11): 1097–1108. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0707361. PMID   18337600.
  19. ↑ "Our evidence - Cochrane". summaries.cochrane.org.
  20. ↑ "Enlaces". SAR Madrid.
  21. ↑ Schuller PJ, Newell S, Strickland PA, Barry JJ (July 2015). "Response of bispectral index to neuromuscular block in awake volunteers". British Journal of Anaesthesia. 115 (Suppl 1): i95–i103. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.1025.8968 . doi:10.1093/bja/aev072. PMID   26174308.
  22. ↑ Messner M, Beese U, Romstöck J, Dinkel M, Tschaikowsky K (August 2003). "The bispectral index declines during neuromuscular block in fully awake persons". Anesthesia and Analgesia. 97 (2): 488–491. doi: 10.1213/01.ane.0000072741.78244.c0 . PMID   12873942. S2CID   14760876.
  23. ↑ Myles PS, Cairo S (March 2004). "Artifact in the bispectral index in a patient with severe ischemic brain injury". Anesthesia and Analgesia. 98 (3): 706–7, table of contents. doi: 10.1213/01.ANE.0000099360.49186.6B . PMID   14980924.
  24. ↑ Zanner R, Schneider G, Kochs EF (July 2006). "Falsely increased bispectral index values caused by the use of a forced-air-warming device". European Journal of Anaesthesiology. 23 (7): 618–619. doi: 10.1017/s0265021506210779 . PMID   16677436.
  25. ↑ Fatovich DM, Jacobs IG, Celenza A, Paech MJ (May 2006). "An observational study of bispectral index monitoring for out of hospital cardiac arrest". Resuscitation. 69 (2): 207–212. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2005.07.022. PMID   16378674.
  26. ↑ Wennervirta J, Salmi T, Hynynen M, Yli-Hankala A, Koivusalo AM, Van Gils M, et al. (January 2007). "Entropy is more resistant to artifacts than bispectral index in brain-dead organ donors". Intensive Care Medicine. 33 (1): 133–136. doi:10.1007/s00134-006-0429-6. PMC   7121908 . PMID   17091243.
  27. ↑ "Espacenet - Bibliographic data". worldwide.espacenet.com.
  28. ↑ P. Myles, K. Leslie et al. Lancet 2004
  29. ↑ Phillips JS, Innes AJ, Naik MS (March 2004). "Corticosteroids for supraglottitis". British Journal of Anaesthesia. 92 (3): 454–455. doi: 10.1093/bja/aeh527 . PMID   14970144.
  30. ↑ Davidson AJ, Huang GH, Czarnecki C, Gibson MA, Stewart SA, Jamsen K, Stargatt R (March 2005). "Awareness during anesthesia in children: a prospective cohort study". Anesthesia and Analgesia. 100 (3): 653–661. doi: 10.1213/01.ANE.0000150604.73481.00 . PMID   15728046. S2CID   22488115.
  31. ↑ McKeever S, Johnston L, Davidson AJ (March 2012). "An observational study exploring amplitude-integrated electroencephalogram and spectral edge frequency during paediatric anaesthesia". Anaesthesia and Intensive Care. 40 (2): 275–284. doi: 10.1177/0310057X1204000210 . PMID   22417022.
  32. ↑ McKeever S, Johnston L, Davidson AJ (July 2014). "Sevoflurane-induced changes in infants' quantifiable electroencephalogram parameters" (PDF). Pediatric Anesthesia. 24 (7): 766–773. doi:10.1111/pan.12366. PMID   24612073. S2CID   206243289.
  33. ↑ Lang L (2013). "Awakening". The Atlantic.

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