Black silicon

Last updated

Black silicon is a semiconductor material, a surface modification of silicon with very low reflectivity and correspondingly high absorption of visible (and infrared) light.

Contents

The modification was discovered in the 1980s as an unwanted side effect of reactive ion etching (RIE). [1] [2] Other methods for forming a similar structure include electrochemical etching, stain etching, metal-assisted chemical etching, and laser treatment.

Black silicon has become a major asset to the solar photovoltaic industry as it enables greater light to electricity conversion efficiency [3] of standard crystalline silicon solar cells, which significantly reduces their costs. [4]

Properties

Scanning electron micrograph of black silicon, produced by RIE (ASE process) Black Silicon - ASE.jpg
Scanning electron micrograph of black silicon, produced by RIE (ASE process)
SEM micrograph of black silicon formed by cryogenic RIE. Notice the smooth, sloped surfaces, unlike the undulated sidewalls obtained with the Bosch process RIE. SEM of RIE Black Silicon.JPG
SEM micrograph of black silicon formed by cryogenic RIE. Notice the smooth, sloped surfaces, unlike the undulated sidewalls obtained with the Bosch process RIE.

Black silicon is a needle-shaped surface structure where needles are made of single-crystal silicon and have a height above 10 µm and diameter less than 1 µm. [2] Its main feature is an increased absorption of incident light—the high reflectivity of the silicon, which is usually 20–30% for quasi-normal incidence, is reduced to about 5%. This is due to the formation of a so-called effective medium [5] by the needles. Within this medium, there is no sharp interface, but a continuous change of the refractive index that reduces Fresnel reflection. When the depth of the graded layer is roughly equal to the wavelength of light in silicon (about one-quarter the wavelength in vacuum) the reflection is reduced to 5%; deeper grades produce even blacker silicon. [6] For low reflectivity, the nanoscale features producing the index graded layer must be smaller than the wavelength of the incident light to avoid scattering. [6]

SEM photograph of black silicon with slanted nanocones, produced by oblique-angled RIE. Slantedblacksilicon.jpg
SEM photograph of black silicon with slanted nanocones, produced by oblique-angled RIE.

Applications

The unusual optical characteristics, combined with the semiconducting properties of silicon make this material interesting for sensor applications. Potential applications include: [7]

Production

Reactive-ion etching

Scanning electron micrograph of a single "needle" of black silicon, produced by RIE (ASE process) Black Silicon - ASE single.jpg
Scanning electron micrograph of a single "needle" of black silicon, produced by RIE (ASE process)

In semiconductor technology, reactive-ion etching (RIE) is a standard procedure for producing trenches and holes with a depth of up to several hundred micrometres and very high aspect ratios. In Bosch process RIE, this is achieved by repeatedly switching between an etching and passivation. With cryogenic RIE, the low temperature and oxygen gas achieve this sidewall passivation by forming SiO
2, easily removed from the bottom by directional ions. Both RIE methods can produce black silicon, but the morphology of the resulting structure differs substantially. The switching between etching and passivation of the Bosch process creates undulated sidewalls, which are visible also on the black silicon formed this way.

During etching, however, small debris remain on the substrate; they mask the ion beam and produce structures that are not removed and in the following etching and passivation steps result in tall silicon pillars. [33] The process can be set so that a million needles are formed on an area of one square millimeter. [15]

Mazur's method

In 1999, a Harvard University group led by Eric Mazur developed a process in which black silicon was produced by irradiating silicon with femtosecond laser pulses. [34] After irradiation in the presence of a gas containing sulfur hexafluoride and other dopants, the surface of silicon develops a self-organized microscopic structure of micrometer-sized cones. The resulting material has many remarkable properties, such as absorption that extends to the infrared range, below the band gap of silicon, including wavelengths for which ordinary silicon is transparent. sulfur atoms are forced to the silicon surface, creating a structure with a lower band gap and therefore the ability to absorb longer wavelengths.

Black silicon made without special gas ambient - laboratory LP3-CNRS Black silicon LP3.jpg
Black silicon made without special gas ambient – laboratory LP3-CNRS

Similar surface modification can be achieved in vacuum using the same type of laser and laser processing conditions. In this case, the individual silicon cones lack sharp tips (see image). The reflectivity of such a micro-structured surface is very low, 3–14% in the spectral range 350–1150 nm. [35] Such reduction in reflectivity is contributed by the cone geometry, which increases the light internal reflections between them. Hence, the possibility of light absorption is increased. The gain in absorption achieved by fs laser texturization was superior to that achieved by using an alkaline chemical etch method, [36] which is a standard industrial approach for surface texturing of mono-crystalline silicon wafers in solar cell manufacturing. Such surface modification is independent of local crystalline orientation. A uniform texturing effect can be achieved across the surface of a multi-crystalline silicon wafer. The very steep angles lower the reflection to near zero and also increase the probability of recombination, keeping it from use in solar cells.

Nanopores

When a mix of copper nitrate, phosphorous acid, hydrogen fluoride and water are applied to a silicon wafer, the phosphorous acid reduction reduces the copper ions to copper nanoparticles. The nanoparticles attract electrons from the wafer's surface, oxidizing it and allowing the hydrogen fluoride to burn inverted pyramid-shaped nanopores into the silicon. The process produced pores as small as 590 nm that let through more than 99% of light. [37]

Chemical Etching

Black silicon can also be produced by chemical etching using a process called Metal-Assisted Chemical Etching (MACE). [38] [39] [40] [41]

Function

When the material is biased by a small electric voltage, absorbed photons are able to excite dozens of electrons. The sensitivity of black silicon detectors is 100–500 times higher than that of untreated silicon (conventional silicon), in both the visible and infrared spectra. [42] [43]

A group at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory reported black silicon solar cells with 18.2% efficiency. [19] This black silicon anti-reflective surface was formed by a metal-assisted etch process using nano particles of silver. In May 2015, researchers from Finland's Aalto University, working with researchers from Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya announced they had created black silicon solar cells with 22.1% efficiency [44] [45] by applying a thin passivating film on the nanostructures by Atomic Layer Deposition, and by integrating all metal contacts on the back side of the cell.

A team led by Elena Ivanova at Swinburne University of Technology in Melbourne discovered in 2012 [46] that cicada wings were potent killers of Pseudomonas aeruginosa , an opportunist germ that also infects humans and is becoming resistant to antibiotics. The effect came from regularly-spaced "nanopillars" on which bacteria were sliced to shreds as they settled on the surface.

Both cicada wings and black silicon were put through their paces in a lab, and both were bactericidal. Smooth to human touch, the surfaces destroyed Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, as well as bacterial spores.

The three targeted bacterial species were P. aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis , a wide-ranging soil germ that is a cousin of anthrax.

The killing rate was 450,000 bacteria per square centimetre per minute over the first three hours of exposure or 810 times the minimum dose needed to infect a person with S. aureus, and 77,400 times that of P. aeruginosa. However, it was later proven that the quantification protocol of Ivanova's team was not suitable for these kind of antibacterial surfaces.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gallium arsenide</span> Chemical compound

Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is a III-V direct band gap semiconductor with a zinc blende crystal structure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Photovoltaics</span> Method to produce electricity from solar radiation

Photovoltaics (PV) is the conversion of light into electricity using semiconducting materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect, a phenomenon studied in physics, photochemistry, and electrochemistry. The photovoltaic effect is commercially used for electricity generation and as photosensors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Photodetector</span> Sensors of light or other electromagnetic energy

Photodetectors, also called photosensors, are sensors of light or other electromagnetic radiation. There are a wide variety of photodetectors which may be classified by mechanism of detection, such as photoelectric or photochemical effects, or by various performance metrics, such as spectral response. Semiconductor-based photodetectors typically use a p–n junction that converts photons into charge. The absorbed photons make electron–hole pairs in the depletion region. Photodiodes and photo transistors are a few examples of photo detectors. Solar cells convert some of the light energy absorbed into electrical energy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dye-sensitized solar cell</span> Type of thin-film solar cell

A dye-sensitized solar cell is a low-cost solar cell belonging to the group of thin film solar cells. It is based on a semiconductor formed between a photo-sensitized anode and an electrolyte, a photoelectrochemical system. The modern version of a dye solar cell, also known as the Grätzel cell, was originally co-invented in 1988 by Brian O'Regan and Michael Grätzel at UC Berkeley and this work was later developed by the aforementioned scientists at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) until the publication of the first high efficiency DSSC in 1991. Michael Grätzel has been awarded the 2010 Millennium Technology Prize for this invention.

An epitaxial wafer is a wafer of semiconducting material made by epitaxial growth (epitaxy) for use in photonics, microelectronics, spintronics, or photovoltaics. The epi layer may be the same material as the substrate, typically monocrystaline silicon, or it may be a silicon dioxide (SoI) or a more exotic material with specific desirable qualities. The purpose of epitaxy is to perfect the crystal structure over the bare substrate below and improve the wafer surface's electrical characteristics, making it suitable for highly complex microprocessors and memory devices.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar cell</span> Photodiode used to produce power from light on a large scale

A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is an electronic device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by means of the photovoltaic effect. It is a form of photoelectric cell, a device whose electrical characteristics vary when it is exposed to light. Individual solar cell devices are often the electrical building blocks of photovoltaic modules, known colloquially as "solar panels". The common single-junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum open-circuit voltage of approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plasma cleaning</span>

Plasma cleaning is the removal of impurities and contaminants from surfaces through the use of an energetic plasma or dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma created from gaseous species. Gases such as argon and oxygen, as well as mixtures such as air and hydrogen/nitrogen are used. The plasma is created by using high frequency voltages to ionise the low pressure gas, although atmospheric pressure plasmas are now also common.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Quantum dot solar cell</span> Type of solar cell based on quantum dot devices

A quantum dot solar cell (QDSC) is a solar cell design that uses quantum dots as the captivating photovoltaic material. It attempts to replace bulk materials such as silicon, copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) or cadmium telluride (CdTe). Quantum dots have bandgaps that are adjustable across a wide range of energy levels by changing their size. In bulk materials, the bandgap is fixed by the choice of material(s). This property makes quantum dots attractive for multi-junction solar cells, where a variety of materials are used to improve efficiency by harvesting multiple portions of the solar spectrum.

As the world's energy demand continues to grow, the development of more efficient and sustainable technologies for generating and storing energy is becoming increasingly important. According to Dr. Wade Adams from Rice University, energy will be the most pressing problem facing humanity in the next 50 years and nanotechnology has potential to solve this issue. Nanotechnology, a relatively new field of science and engineering, has shown promise to have a significant impact on the energy industry. Nanotechnology is defined as any technology that contains particles with one dimension under 100 nanometers in length. For scale, a single virus particle is about 100 nanometers wide.

A definition in semiconductor physics, carrier lifetime is defined as the average time it takes for a minority carrier to recombine. The process through which this is done is typically known as minority carrier recombination.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Organic solar cell</span> Type of photovoltaic

An organic solar cell (OSC) or plastic solar cell is a type of photovoltaic that uses organic electronics, a branch of electronics that deals with conductive organic polymers or small organic molecules, for light absorption and charge transport to produce electricity from sunlight by the photovoltaic effect. Most organic photovoltaic cells are polymer solar cells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thin-film solar cell</span> Type of second-generation solar cell

Thin-film solar cells are made by depositing one or more thin layers of photovoltaic material onto a substrate, such as glass, plastic or metal. Thin-film solar cells are typically a few nanometers (nm) to a few microns (µm) thick–much thinner than the wafers used in conventional crystalline silicon (c-Si) based solar cells, which can be up to 200 µm thick. Thin-film solar cells are commercially used in several technologies, including cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS), and amorphous thin-film silicon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crystalline silicon</span> Semiconducting material used in solar cell technology

Crystalline silicon or (c-Si) Is the crystalline forms of silicon, either polycrystalline silicon, or monocrystalline silicon. Crystalline silicon is the dominant semiconducting material used in photovoltaic technology for the production of solar cells. These cells are assembled into solar panels as part of a photovoltaic system to generate solar power from sunlight.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar-cell efficiency</span> Ratio of energy extracted from sunlight in solar cells

Solar-cell efficiency refers to the portion of energy in the form of sunlight that can be converted via photovoltaics into electricity by the solar cell.

Potential graphene applications include lightweight, thin, and flexible electric/photonics circuits, solar cells, and various medical, chemical and industrial processes enhanced or enabled by the use of new graphene materials.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Perovskite solar cell</span> Alternative to silicon-based photovoltaics

A perovskite solar cell (PSC) is a type of solar cell that includes a perovskite-structured compound, most commonly a hybrid organic–inorganic lead or tin halide-based material as the light-harvesting active layer. Perovskite materials, such as methylammonium lead halides and all-inorganic cesium lead halide, are cheap to produce and simple to manufacture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amorphous silicon</span> Non-crystalline silicon

Amorphous silicon (a-Si) is the non-crystalline form of silicon used for solar cells and thin-film transistors in LCDs.

Silicon nanowires, also referred to as SiNWs, are a type of semiconductor nanowire most often formed from a silicon precursor by etching of a solid or through catalyzed growth from a vapor or liquid phase. Such nanowires have promising applications in lithium ion batteries, thermoelectrics and sensors. Initial synthesis of SiNWs is often accompanied by thermal oxidation steps to yield structures of accurately tailored size and morphology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020–present</span> Notable events in energy research since 2020

Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020- documents increases in renewable energy, solar energy, and nuclear energy, particularly for ways that are sustainable within the Solar System.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heterojunction solar cell</span> A solar cell architecture

Heterojunction solar cells (HJT), variously known as Silicon heterojunctions (SHJ) or Heterojunction with Intrinsic Thin Layer (HIT), are a family of photovoltaic cell technologies based on a heterojunction formed between semiconductors with dissimilar band gaps. They are a hybrid technology, combining aspects of conventional crystalline solar cells with thin-film solar cells.

References

  1. ↑ Jansen, H; Boer, M de; Legtenberg, R; Elwenspoek, M (1995). "The black silicon method: a universal method for determining the parameter setting of a fluorine-based reactive ion etcher in deep silicon trench etching with profile control". Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering. 5 (2): 115–120. Bibcode:1995JMiMi...5..115J. doi:10.1088/0960-1317/5/2/015. S2CID   250922747.
  2. 1 2 3 Black Silicon [ permanent dead link ] as a functional layer of the micro-system technology
  3. ↑ Alcubilla, Ramon; Garín, Moises; Calle, Eric; Ortega, Pablo; Gastrow, Guillaume von; Repo, Päivikki; Savin, Hele (2015). "Black silicon solar cells with interdigitated back-contacts achieve 22.1% efficiency". Nature Nanotechnology. 10 (7): 624–628. Bibcode:2015NatNa..10..624S. doi:10.1038/nnano.2015.89. hdl: 2117/81173 . ISSN   1748-3395. PMID   25984832.
  4. ↑ Pearce, Joshua; Savin, Hele; Pasanen, Toni; Laine, Hannu; Modanese, Chiara; Modanese, Chiara; Laine, Hannu S.; Pasanen, Toni P.; Savin, Hele (2018). "Economic Advantages of Dry-Etched Black Silicon in Passivated Emitter Rear Cell (PERC) Photovoltaic Manufacturing". Energies. 11 (9): 2337. doi: 10.3390/en11092337 .
  5. ↑ C. Tuck Choy (1999). Effective Medium Theory: Principles and Applications. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-851892-1.
  6. 1 2 Branz, H.M.; Yost, V.E.; Ward, S.; To, B.; Jones, K.; Stradins, P. (2009). "Nanostructured black silicon and the optical reflectance of graded-density surfaces". Appl. Phys. Lett. 94 (23): 231121–3. Bibcode:2009ApPhL..94w1121B. doi:10.1063/1.3152244.
  7. ↑ Carsten Meyer: "Black Silicon: sensor material of the future?" Heise Online. 5 February 2009
  8. ↑ Koynov, Svetoslav; Brandt, Martin S.; Stutzmann, Martin (2006). "Black nonreflecting silicon surfaces for solar cells" (PDF). Applied Physics Letters. 88 (20): 203107. Bibcode:2006ApPhL..88t3107K. doi:10.1063/1.2204573. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 July 2011.
  9. ↑ Koynov, Svetoslav; Brandt, Martin S.; Stutzmann, Martin (2007). "Black multi-crystalline silicon solar cells" (PDF). Physica Status Solidi RRL. 1 (2): R53. Bibcode:2007PSSRR...1R..53K. doi:10.1002/pssr.200600064. S2CID   97435478. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 July 2011.
  10. ↑ Juntunen, Mikko A.; Heinonen, Juha; Vähänissi, Ville; Repo, Päivikki; Valluru, Dileep; Savin, Hele (14 November 2016). "Near-unity quantum efficiency of broadband black silicon photodiodes with an induced junction". Nature Photonics . 10 (12): 777–781. doi:10.1038/nphoton.2016.226. ISSN   1749-4885.
  11. ↑ Garin, M.; Heinonen, J.; Werner, L.; Pasanen, T. P.; Vähänissi, V.; Haarahiltunen, A.; Juntunen, M. A.; Savin, H. (8 September 2020). "Black-Silicon Ultraviolet Photodiodes Achieve External Quantum Efficiency above 130%". Physical Review Letters. 125 (11). arXiv: 1907.13397 . doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.125.117702. ISSN   0031-9007.
  12. ↑ Gail Overton: Terahertz Technology: Black silicon emits terahertz radiation. In: Laser Focus World , 2008
  13. ↑ Cheng-Hsien Liu: Formation of Silicon nanopores and Nanopillars by a Maskless Deep Reactive Ion Etching Process [ permanent dead link ], 11 November 2008
  14. ↑ Zhiyong Xiao; et al. (2007). "Formation of Silicon Nanopores and Nanopillars by a Maskless Deep Reactive Ion Etching Process". TRANSDUCERS 2007 – 2007 International Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems Conference—Formation of Silicon Nanopores and Nanopillars by a Maskless Deep Reactive Ion Etching Process. pp. 89–92. doi:10.1109/SENSOR.2007.4300078. ISBN   978-1-4244-0841-2. S2CID   27299207.
  15. 1 2 Martin Schaefer: Velcro in miniature – "silicon grass holds together micro-components" Archived 24 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine In: wissenschaft.de. 21 June 2006.
  16. ↑ Branz, Howard M.; Yuan, Hao-Chih; Oh, Jihun (2012). "An 18.2%-efficient black-silicon solar cell achieved through control of carrier recombination in nanostructures". Nature Nanotechnology. 7 (11): 743–748. Bibcode:2012NatNa...7..743O. doi:10.1038/nnano.2012.166. ISSN   1748-3395. PMID   23023643.
  17. ↑ Liu, Xiaogang; Coxon, Paul; Peters, Marius; Hoex, Bram; Cole, Jacqueline; Fray, Derek (2014). "Black silicon: fabrication methods, properties and solar energy applications". Energy & Environmental Science. 7 (10): 3223–3263. doi: 10.1039/C4EE01152J .
  18. ↑ Black Silicon Comes Back – And Cheaper than Ever, 7 September 2010
  19. 1 2 Oh, J.; Yuan, H.-C.; Branz, H.M. (2012). "Carrier recombination mechanisms in high surface area nanostructured solar cells by study of 18.2%-efficient black silicon solar cells". Nature Nanotechnology. 7 (11): 743–8. Bibcode:2012NatNa...7..743O. doi:10.1038/nnano.2012.166. PMID   23023643.
  20. ↑ "Black silicon slices and dices bacteria". Gizmag.com. Retrieved 29 November 2013.
  21. ↑ Xu, Zhida; Jiang, Jing; Gartia, Manas; Liu, Logan (2012). "Monolithic Integrations of Slanted Silicon Nanostructures on 3D Microstructures and Their Application to Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy". The Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 116 (45): 24161–24170. arXiv: 1402.1739 . doi:10.1021/jp308162c. S2CID   30224322.
  22. ↑ Liu, Xiao-Long; Zhu, Su-Wan; Sun, Hai-Bin; Hu, Yue; Ma, Sheng-Xiang; Ning, Xi-Jing; Zhao, Li; Zhuang, Jun (17 January 2018). ""Infinite Sensitivity" of Black Silicon Ammonia Sensor Achieved by Optical and Electric Dual Drives". ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 10 (5): 5061–5071. doi:10.1021/acsami.7b16542. PMID   29338182.
  23. ↑ Liu, Xiao-Long; Ma, Sheng-Xiang; Zhu, Su-Wan; Zhao, Yang; Ning, Xi-Jing; Zhao, Li; Zhuang, Jun (15 July 2019). "Light stimulated and regulated gas sensing ability for ammonia using sulfur-hyperdoped silicon". Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical. 291: 345–353. doi:10.1016/j.snb.2019.04.073.
  24. ↑ Liu, Xiao-Long; Zhao, Yang; Ma, Sheng-Xiang; Zhu, Su-Wan; Ning, Xi-Jing; Zhao, Li; Zhuang, Jun (22 November 2019). "Rapid and Wide-Range Detection of NO x Gas by N-Hyperdoped Silicon with the Assistance of a Photovoltaic Self-Powered Sensing Mode". ACS Sensors. 4 (11): 3056–3065. doi:10.1021/acssensors.9b01704. ISSN   2379-3694.
  25. ↑ Liu, Xiao-Long; Zhao, Yang; Zhao, Li; Zhuang, Jun (2 March 2020). "Light-enhanced room-temperature gas sensing performance of femtosecond-laser structured silicon after natural aging". Optics Express. 28 (5): 7237. doi: 10.1364/OE.377244 . ISSN   1094-4087.
  26. ↑ Liu, Xiao-Long; Zhao, Yang; Wang, Wen-Jing; Ma, Sheng-Xiang; Ning, Xi-Jing; Zhao, Li; Zhuang, Jun (1 March 2021). "Photovoltaic Self-Powered Gas Sensing: A Review". IEEE Sensors Journal. 21 (5): 5628–5644. arXiv: 2008.10378 . doi:10.1109/JSEN.2020.3037463. ISSN   1530-437X.
  27. ↑ Zhao, Yang; Liu, Xiao-Long; Ma, Sheng-Xiang; Wang, Wen-Jing; Ning, Xi-Jing; Zhao, Li; Zhuang, Jun (1 August 2021). "Light-optimized photovoltaic self-powered NO2 gas sensing based on black silicon". Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical. 340: 129985. doi:10.1016/j.snb.2021.129985.
  28. ↑ Wang, Wenjing; Ma, Shengxiang; Liu, Xiaolong; Zhao, Yang; Li, Hua; Li, Yuan; Ning, Xijing; Zhao, Li; Zhuang, Jun (1 March 2022). "NO2 gas sensor with excellent performance based on thermally modified nitrogen-hyperdoped silicon". Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical. 354: 131193. doi:10.1016/j.snb.2021.131193.
  29. ↑ Li, Yuan; Li, Hua; Dong, Binbin; Liu, Xiaolong; Feng, Guojin; Zhao, Li (20 February 2024). "Improved NH 3 Gas Sensing Performance of Femtosecond‐Laser Textured Silicon by the Decoration of Au Nanoparticles". physica status solidi (RRL) – Rapid Research Letters. doi:10.1002/pssr.202400015. ISSN   1862-6254.
  30. ↑ Dong, Binbin; Wang, Wenjing; Liu, Xiao-Long; Li, Hua; Li, Yuan; Huang, Yurui; Ning, Xi-Jing; Zhao, Li; Zhuang, Jun (18 March 2024). "Light and gas dual-function detection and mutual enhancement based on hyperdoped black silicon". Optics Express. doi: 10.1364/OE.521885 . ISSN   1094-4087.
  31. ↑ Li, Yuan; Li, Hua; Feng, Guojin; Wang, Wenjing; Dong, Binbin; Zhao, Li; Zhuang, Jun (8 January 2024). "Room-temperature NH3 gas sensing of S-hyperdoped silicon: Optimization through substrate resistivity". Applied Physics Letters. 124 (2). doi:10.1063/5.0181639. ISSN   0003-6951.
  32. ↑ Ayvazyan, Gagik; Ayvazyan, Karen; Hakhoyan, Levon; Semchenko, Alina (18 March 2023). "NO 2 Gas Sensor Based on Pristine Black Silicon Formed by Reactive Ion Etching". physica status solidi (RRL) – Rapid Research Letters. 17 (9). doi:10.1002/pssr.202300058. ISSN   1862-6254.
  33. ↑ Mike Stubenrauch, Martin Hoffmann, Siliziumtiefätzen (DRIE) [ permanent dead link ], 2006
  34. ↑ William J. Cromie arises: Black Silicon, A New Way To Trap Light Archived 13 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine .In:Harvard Gazette.9 December 1999, accessed on 16 February 2009.
  35. ↑ Torres, R., Vervisch, V., Halbwax, M., Sarnet, T., Delaporte, P., Sentis, M., Ferreira, J., Barakel, D., Bastide, S., Torregrosa, F., Etienne, H., and Roux, L., "Femtosecond laser texturization for improvement of photovoltaic cells: Black silicon", Journal of Optoelectronics and Advanced Materials, Volume 12, No. 3, pp. 621–625, 2010.
  36. ↑ Sarnet, T., Torres, R., Vervisch, V., Delaporte, P., Sentis, M., Halbwax, M., Ferreira, J., Barakel, D., Pasquielli, M., Martinuzzi, S., Escoubas, L., Torregrosa, F., Etienne, H., and Roux, L., "Black silicon recent improvements for photovaltaic cells", Proceedings of the International Congress on Applications of Lasers & Electro-Optics, 2008.
  37. ↑ Williams, Mike (18 June 2014). "One step to solar cell efficiency". Rdmag.com. Retrieved 22 June 2014.
  38. ↑ Hsu, Chih-Hung; Wu, Jia-Ren; Lu, Yen-Tien; Flood, Dennis J.; Barron, Andrew R.; Chen, Lung-Chien (1 September 2014). "Fabrication and characteristics of black silicon for solar cell applications: An overview". Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing. 25: 2–17. doi:10.1016/j.mssp.2014.02.005. ISSN   1369-8001.
  39. ↑ Koynov, Svetoslav; Brandt, Martin S.; Stutzmann, Martin (2007). "Black multi-crystalline silicon solar cells". Physica Status Solidi RRL. 1 (2): R53–R55. Bibcode:2007PSSRR...1R..53K. doi:10.1002/pssr.200600064. ISSN   1862-6270. S2CID   97435478.
  40. ↑ Chen, Kexun; Zha, Jiawei; Hu, Fenqin; Ye, Xiaoya; Zou, Shuai; Vähänissi, Ville; Pearce, Joshua M.; Savin, Hele; Su, Xiaodong (1 March 2019). "MACE nano-texture process applicable for both single- and multi-crystalline diamond-wire sawn Si solar cells" (PDF). Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells. 191: 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.solmat.2018.10.015. ISSN   0927-0248. S2CID   106115955.
  41. ↑ Uddin, Shahnawaz; Hashim, Md. Roslan; Pakhuruddin, Mohd Zamir (12 March 2021). "Aluminium-assisted chemical etching for fabrication of black silicon". Materials Chemistry and Physics. 124469: 124469. doi:10.1016/j.matchemphys.2021.124469. ISSN   0254-0584. S2CID   233542194.
  42. ↑ Wade Roush: "SiOnyx Brings "Black Silicon" into the Light; Material Could upend Solar, Imaging Industries". In: Xconomy. 10 December 2008
  43. ↑ 'Black Silicon' A new type of silicon promises cheaper, more-sensitive light detectors, Technology Review Online. 29 October 2008
  44. ↑ "Efficiency record for black silicon solar cells jumps to 22.1%".
  45. ↑ Savin, Hele; Repo, Päivikki; von Gastrow, Guillaume; Ortega, Pablo; Calle, Eric; Garín, Moises; Alcubilla, Ramon (2015). "Black silicon solar cells with interdigitated back-contacts achieve 22.1% efficiency". Nature Nanotechnology. 10 (7): 624–628. Bibcode:2015NatNa..10..624S. doi:10.1038/nnano.2015.89. hdl: 2117/81173 . PMID   25984832.
  46. ↑ Elena P. Ivanova; Jafar Hasan; Hayden K. Web; Vi Khanh Truon; Gregory S. Watson; Jolanta A. Watson; Vladimir A. Baulin; Sergey Pogodin; James Y. Wang; Mark J. Tobi; Christian Löbbe; Russell J. Crawford (20 August 2012). "Natural Bactericidal Surfaces: Mechanical Rupture of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Cells by Cicada Wings". Small . 8 (17): 2489–2494. doi:10.1002/smll.201200528. PMID   22674670.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.