Cell-free fetal DNA

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Cell-free fetal DNA (cffDNA) is fetal DNA that circulates freely in the maternal blood. Maternal blood is sampled by venipuncture. Analysis of cffDNA is a method of non-invasive prenatal diagnosis frequently ordered for pregnant women of advanced maternal age. Two hours after delivery, cffDNA is no longer detectable in maternal blood.

Contents

Background

Cell-free fetal DNA sheds into the maternal blood circulation. Cell free fetal DNA shedding into maternal bloodstream.pdf
Cell-free fetal DNA sheds into the maternal blood circulation.

cffDNA originates from placental trophoblasts. [1] [2] Fetal DNA is fragmented when placental microparticles are shed into the maternal blood circulation. [3]

cffDNA fragments are approximately 200 base pairs (bp) in length. They are significantly smaller than maternal DNA fragments. [4] The difference in size allows cffDNA to be distinguished from maternal DNA fragments. [5] [6]

Approximately 11 to 13.4 percent of the cell-free DNA in maternal blood is of fetal origin. The amount varies widely from one pregnant woman to another. [7] cffDNA is present after five to seven weeks gestation. The amount of cffDNA increases as the pregnancy progresses. [8] The quantity of cffDNA in maternal blood diminishes rapidly after childbirth. Two hours after delivery, cffDNA is no longer detectable in maternal blood. [9]

Analysis of cffDNA may provide earlier diagnosis of fetal conditions than current techniques. As cffDNA is found in maternal blood, sampling carries no associated risk of spontaneous abortion. [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] cffDNA analysis has the same ethical and practical issues as other techniques such as amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling. [15]

Some disadvantages of sampling cffDNA include a low concentration of cffDNA in maternal blood; variation in the quantity of cffDNA between individuals; a high concentration of maternal cell free DNA compared to the cffDNA in maternal blood. [16]

New evidence shows that cffDNA test failure rate is higher, fetal fraction (proportion of fetal versus maternal DNA in the maternal blood sample) is lower and PPV for trisomies 18, 13 and SCA is decreased in IVF pregnancies compared to those conceived spontaneously.[ clarification needed ] [17]

Laboratory methods

A number of laboratory methods have been developed for cell-free fetal DNA screening for genetic defects have been developed. The main ones are (1) massively parallel shotgun sequencing (MPSS), (2) targeted massive parallel sequencing (t-MPS) and (3) single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) based approach. [18] [19] [20]

A maternal peripheral blood sample is taken by venesection at about ten weeks gestation. [21]

Separation of cffDNA

Blood plasma is separated from the maternal blood sample using a laboratory centrifuge. The cffDNA is then isolated and purified. [22] A standardized protocol for doing this was written through an evaluation of the scientific literature. The highest yield in cffDNA extraction was obtained with the "QIAamp DSP Virus Kit". [23]

Addition of formaldehyde to maternal blood samples increases the yield of cffDNA. Formaldehyde stabilizes intact cells, and therefore inhibits the further release of maternal DNA. With the addition of formaldehyde, the percentage of cffDNA recovered from a maternal blood sample varies between 0.32 percent and 40 percent with a mean of 7.7 percent. [24] Without the addition of formaldehyde, the mean percentage of cffDNA recovered has been measured at 20.2 percent. However, other figures vary between 5 and 96 percent. [25] [26]

Recovery of cffDNA may be related to the length of the DNA fragments. Another way to increase the fetal DNA is based on physical length of DNA fragments. Smaller fragments can represent up to seventy percent of the total cell free DNA in the maternal blood sample.[ citation needed ]

Analysis of cffDNA

In real-time PCR, fluorescent probes are used to monitor the accumulation of amplicons. The reporter fluorescent signal is proportional to the number of amplicons generated. The most appropriate real time PCR protocol is designed according to the particular mutation or genotype to be detected. Point mutations are analysed with qualitative real time PCR with the use of allele specific probes. insertions and deletions are analyzed by dosage measurements using quantitative real time PCR.[ citation needed ]

cffDNA may be detected by finding paternally inherited DNA sequences via polymerase chain reaction (PCR). [27] [28]

Quantitative real-time PCR

sex-determining region Y gene (SRY) and Y chromosome short tandem repeat "DYS14" in cffDNA from 511 pregnancies were analyzed using quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR). In 401 of 403 pregnancies where maternal blood was drawn at seven weeks gestation or more, both segments of DNA were found. [29]

Nested PCR

The use of nested polymerase chain reaction (nested PCR) was evaluated to determine sex by detecting a Y chromosome specific signal in the cffDNA from maternal plasma. Nested PCR detected 53 of 55 male fetuses. The cffDNA from the plasma of 3 of 25 women with female fetuses contained the Y chromosome-specific signal. The sensitivity of nested PCR in this experiment was 96 percent. The specificity was 88 percent. [30]

Digital PCR

Microfluidic devices allow the quantification of cffDNA segments in maternal plasma with accuracy beyond that of real-time PCR. Point mutations, loss of heterozygosity and aneuploidy can be detected in a single PCR step. [31] [32] [33] Digital PCR can differentiate between maternal blood plasma and fetal DNA in a multiplex fashion. [31]

Shotgun sequencing

High throughput shotgun sequencing using tools such as Solexa or Illumina, yields approximately 5 million sequence tags per sample of maternal serum. Aneuploid pregnancies such as trisomy were identified when testing at the fourteenth week of gestation. Fetal whole of genome mapping by parental haplotype analysis was completed using sequencing of cffDNA from maternal serum. [13] Pregnant females were studied using a 2-plex massively parallel maternal plasma DNA sequencing and trisomy was diagnosed with z-score greater than 3. [34] The sequencing gave sensitivity of 100 percent, specificity of 97.9 percent, a positive predictive value of 96.6 percent and a negative predictive value of 100 percent.[ citation needed ]

Mass spectrometry

Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) combined with single-base extension after PCR allows cffDNA detection with single base specificity and single DNA molecule sensitivity. [35] DNA is amplified by PCR. Then, linear amplification with base extension reaction (with a third primer) is designed to anneal to the region upstream from the mutation site. One or two bases are added to the extension primer to produce two extension products from wild-type DNA and mutant DNA. Single base specificity provides advantages over hybridization-based techniques using TaqMan hydrolysis probes. When assessing the technique, no false positives or negatives were found when looking for cffDNA to determine fetal sex in sixteen maternal plasma samples. [35] The sex of ninety-one male foetuses were correctly detected using MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. The technique had accuracy, sensitivity and specificity of over 99 percent. [36]

Epigenetic modifications

Differences in gene activation between maternal and fetal DNA can be exploited. Epigenetic modifications (heritable modifications that change gene function without changing DNA sequence) can be used to detect cffDNA. [37] [38] The hypermethylated RASSF1A promoter is a universal fetal marker used to confirm the presence of cffDNA. [39] A technique was described where cffDNA was extracted from maternal plasma and then digested with methylation-sensitive and insensitive restriction enzymes. Then, real-time PCR analysis of RASSF1A, SRY, and DYS14 was done. [39] The procedure detected 79 out of 90 (88 percent) maternal blood samples where hypermethylated RASSF1A was present.[ citation needed ]

mRNA

mRNA transcripts from genes expressed in the placenta are detectable in maternal plasma. [40] In this procedure, plasma is centrifuged so an aqueous layer appears. This layer is transferred and from it RNA is extracted. RT-PCR is used to detect a selected expression of RNA. For example, Human placental lactogen (hPL) and beta-hCG mRNA are stable in maternal plasma and can be detected. (Ng et al. 2002). This can help to confirm the presence of cffDNA in maternal plasma. [16]

Applications

Prenatal sex discernment

The analysis of cffDNA from a sample of maternal plasma allows for prenatal sex discernment. Applications of prenatal sex discernment include:

In comparison to obstetric ultrasonography which is unreliable for sex determination in the first trimester and amniocentesis which carries a small risk of miscarriage, sampling of maternal plasma for analysis of cffDNA is without risk. [42] The main targets in the cffDNA analysis are the gene responsible for the sex-determining region Y protein (SRY) on the Y chromosome and the DYS14 sequence. [43] [44]

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

In congenital adrenal hyperplasia, the adrenal cortex lacks appropriate corticosteroid synthesis, leading to excess adrenal androgens and affects female fetuses. [45] There is an external masculinization of the genitalia in the female fetuses. [46] Mothers of at risk fetuses are given dexamethasone at 6 weeks gestation to suppress pituitary gland release of androgens. [47]

If analysis of cffDNA obtained from a sample of maternal plasma lacks genetic markers found only on the Y chromosome, it is suggestive of a female fetus. However, it might also indicate a failure of the analysis itself (a false negative result). Paternal genetic polymorphisms and sex-independent markers may be used to detect cffDNA. A high degree of heterozygosity of these markers must be present for this application. [48]

Paternity testing

Prenatal DNA paternity testing is commercially available. The test can be performed at nine weeks gestation.[ citation needed ]

Single gene disorders

Autosomal dominant and recessive single gene disorders which have been diagnosed prenatally by analysing paternally inherited DNA include cystic fibrosis, beta thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, spinal muscular atrophy, and myotonic dystrophy. [27] [43] Prenatal diagnosis of single gene disorders which are due to an autosomal recessive mutation, a maternally inherited autosomal dominant mutation or large sequence mutations that include duplication, expansion or insertion of DNA sequences is more difficult. [49]

In cffDNA, fragments of 200 – 300 bp length involved in single gene disorders are more difficult to detect.[ citation needed ]

For example, the autosomal dominant condition, achondroplasia is caused by the FGFR3 gene point mutation. [50] In two pregnancies with a fetus with achondroplasia was found a paternally inherited G1138A mutation from cffDNA from a maternal plasma sample in one and a G1138A de novo mutation from the other. [50]

In studies of the genetics of Huntington's chorea using qRT-PCR of cffDNA from maternal plasma samples, CAG repeats have been detected at normal levels (17, 20 and 24). [51]

cffDNA may also be used to diagnose single gene disorders. [15] Developments in laboratory processes using cffDNA may allow prenatal diagnosis of aneuploidies such as trisomy 21 (Down's syndrome) in the fetus. [52] [32]

Hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn

Incompatibility of fetal and maternal RhD antigens is the main cause of Hemolytic disease of the newborn. [53] Approximately 15 percent of Caucasian women, 3 to 5 percent of black Africa women and less than 3 percent of Asian women are RhD negative. [54]

Accurate prenatal diagnosis is important because the disease can be fatal to the newborn and because treatment including intramuscular immunoglobulin (Anti-D) or intravenous immunoglobulin can be administered to mothers at risk. [55]

PCR to detect RHD (gene) gene exons 5 and 7 from cffDNA obtained from maternal plasma between 9 and 13 weeks gestation gives a high degree of specificity, sensitivity and diagnostic accuracy (>90 percent) when compared to RhD determination from newborn cord blood serum. [53] Similar results were obtained targeting exons 7 and 10. [56] Droplet digital PCR in fetal RhD determination was comparable to a routine real-time PCR technique. [57]

Routine determination of fetal RhD status from cffDNA in maternal serum allows early management of at risk pregnancies while decreasing unnecessary use of Anti-D by over 25 percent. [58]

Aneuploidy

Sex chromosomes

Analysis of maternal serum cffDNA by high-throughput sequencing can detect common fetal sex chromosome aneuploidies such as Turner's syndrome, Klinefelter's syndrome and triple X syndrome but the procedure's positive predictive value is low. [59]

An example of an algorithm for determining the indication for prenatal genetic testing for trisomy 21 (Down syndrome), wherein the genetic blood test (in center) is performed by detecting cffDNA in a blood sample from the mother. Prenatal Down syndrome screening algorithm.png
An example of an algorithm for determining the indication for prenatal genetic testing for trisomy 21 (Down syndrome), wherein the genetic blood test (in center) is performed by detecting cffDNA in a blood sample from the mother.
Trisomy 21

Fetal trisomy of chromosome 21 is the cause of Down's syndrome. This trisomy can be detected by analysis of cffDNA from maternal blood by massively parallel shotgun sequencing (MPSS). [61] Another technique is digital analysis of selected regions (DANSR). [61] Such tests show a sensitivity of about 99% and a specificity of more than 99.9%. Therefore, they cannot be regarded as diagnostic procedures but may be used to confirm a positive maternal screening test such as a first trimester screening or ultrasound markers of the condition. [61] [62]

Trisomy 13 and 18

Analysis of cffDNA from maternal plasma with MPSS looking for trisomy 13 or 18 is possible [63]

Factors limiting sensitivity and specificity include the levels of cffDNA in the maternal plasma; maternal chromosomes may have mosaicism. [64]

A number of fetal nucleic acid molecules derived from aneuploid chromosomes can be detected including SERPINEB2 mRNA, clad B, hypomethylated SERPINB5 from chromosome 18, placenta-specific 4 (PLAC4), hypermethylated holocarboxylase synthetase (HLCS) and c21orf105 mRNA from chromosome 12. [65] With complete trisomy, the mRNA alleles in maternal plasma isn't the normal 1:1 ratio, but is in fact 2:1. Allelic ratios determined by epigenetic markers can also be used to detect the complete trisomies. Massive parallel sequencing and digital PCR for fetal aneuploidy detection can be used without restriction to fetal-specific nucleic acid molecules. (MPSS) is estimated to have a sensitivity of between 96 and 100%, and a specificity between 94 and 100% for detecting Down syndrome. It can be performed at 10 weeks of gestational age. [66] One study in the United States estimated a false positive rate of 0.3% and a positive predictive value of 80% when using cffDNA to detect Down syndrome. [67]

Preeclampsia

Preeclampsia is a complex condition of pregnancy involving hypertension and proteinuria usually after 20 weeks gestation. [68] It is associated with poor cytotrophoblastic invasion of the myometrium. Onset of the condition between 20 and 34 weeks gestation, is considered "early". [69] Maternal plasma samples in pregnancies complicated by preeclampsia have significantly higher levels of cffDNA that those in normal pregnancies. [70] [71] [72] This holds true for early onset preeclampsia. [69]

History

In 1997, Hong Kong molecular biologist Dennis Lo and his team first employed the Y-PCR assay to identify fetal Y chromosome sequences (because Y-specific sequences are genetic sequences of the fetus not in the maternal genome [73] ) in maternal plasma samples. [74] For this groundbreaking work, Lo was honored with the 2022 Lasker DeBakey Clinical Medical Research Award. [75]

Future perspectives

New generation sequencing may be used to yield a whole genome sequence from cffDNA. This raises ethical questions. [76] However, the utility of the procedure may increase as clear associations between specific genetic variants and disease states are discovered. [77] [78]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amniocentesis</span> Sampling of amniotic fluid done mainly to detect fetal chromosomal abnormalities

Amniocentesis is a medical procedure used primarily in the prenatal diagnosis of genetic conditions. It has other uses such as in the assessment of infection and fetal lung maturity. Prenatal diagnostic testing, which includes amniocentesis, is necessary to conclusively diagnose the majority of genetic disorders, with amniocentesis being the gold-standard procedure after 15 weeks' gestation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prenatal testing</span> Testing for diseases or conditions in a fetus

Prenatal testing is a tool that can be used to detect some birth defects at various stages prior to birth. Prenatal testing consists of prenatal screening and prenatal diagnosis, which are aspects of prenatal care that focus on detecting problems with the pregnancy as early as possible. These may be anatomic and physiologic problems with the health of the zygote, embryo, or fetus, either before gestation even starts or as early in gestation as practicable. Screening can detect problems such as neural tube defects, chromosome abnormalities, and gene mutations that would lead to genetic disorders and birth defects, such as spina bifida, cleft palate, Down syndrome, trisomy 18, Tay–Sachs disease, sickle cell anemia, thalassemia, cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy, and fragile X syndrome. Some tests are designed to discover problems which primarily affect the health of the mother, such as PAPP-A to detect pre-eclampsia or glucose tolerance tests to diagnose gestational diabetes. Screening can also detect anatomical defects such as hydrocephalus, anencephaly, heart defects, and amniotic band syndrome.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chorionic villus sampling</span> Type of prenatal diagnosis done to determine chromosomal or genetic disorders in the fetus

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS), sometimes called "chorionic villous sampling", is a form of prenatal diagnosis done to determine chromosomal or genetic disorders in the fetus. It entails sampling of the chorionic villus and testing it for chromosomal abnormalities, usually with FISH or PCR. CVS usually takes place at 10–12 weeks' gestation, earlier than amniocentesis or percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling. It is the preferred technique before 15 weeks.

The triple test, also called triple screen, the Kettering test or the Bart's test, is an investigation performed during pregnancy in the second trimester to classify a patient as either high-risk or low-risk for chromosomal abnormalities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polysomy</span> Abnormal multiples of one or more chromosomes

Polysomy is a condition found in many species, including fungi, plants, insects, and mammals, in which an organism has at least one more chromosome than normal, i.e., there may be three or more copies of the chromosome rather than the expected two copies. Most eukaryotic species are diploid, meaning they have two sets of chromosomes, whereas prokaryotes are haploid, containing a single chromosome in each cell. Aneuploids possess chromosome numbers that are not exact multiples of the haploid number and polysomy is a type of aneuploidy. A karyotype is the set of chromosomes in an organism and the suffix -somy is used to name aneuploid karyotypes. This is not to be confused with the suffix -ploidy, referring to the number of complete sets of chromosomes.

The Pallister–Killian syndrome (PKS), also termed tetrasomy 12p mosaicism or the Pallister mosaic aneuploidy syndrome, is an extremely rare and severe genetic disorder. PKS is due to the presence of an extra and abnormal chromosome termed a small supernumerary marker chromosome (sSMC). sSMCs contain copies of genetic material from parts of virtually any other chromosome and, depending on the genetic material they carry, can cause various genetic disorders and neoplasms. The sSMC in PKS consists of multiple copies of the short arm of chromosome 12. Consequently, the multiple copies of the genetic material in the sSMC plus the two copies of this genetic material in the two normal chromosome 12's are overexpressed and thereby cause the syndrome. Due to a form of genetic mosaicism, however, individuals with PKS differ in the tissue distributions of their sSMC and therefore show different syndrome-related birth defects and disease severities. For example, individuals with the sSMC in their heart tissue are likely to have cardiac structural abnormalities while those without this sSMC localization have a structurally normal heart.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuchal scan</span> Routine ultrasound done between 11 and 14 weeks pregnancy

A nuchal scan or nuchal translucency (NT) scan/procedure is a sonographic prenatal screening scan (ultrasound) to detect chromosomal abnormalities in a fetus, though altered extracellular matrix composition and limited lymphatic drainage can also be detected.

Noninvasive genotyping is a modern technique for obtaining DNA for genotyping that is characterized by the indirect sampling of specimen, not requiring harm to, handling of, or even the presence of the organism of interest. Beginning in the early 1990s, with the advent of PCR, researchers have been able to obtain high-quality DNA samples from small quantities of hair, feathers, scales, or excrement. These noninvasive samples are an improvement over older allozyme and DNA sampling techniques that often required larger samples of tissue or the destruction of the studied organism. Noninvasive genotyping is widely utilized in conservation efforts, where capture and sampling may be difficult or disruptive to behavior. Additionally, in medicine, this technique is being applied in humans for the diagnosis of genetic disease and early detection of tumors. In this context, invasivity takes on a separate definition where noninvasive sampling also includes simple blood samples.

Multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) is a variation of the multiplex polymerase chain reaction that permits amplification of multiple targets with only a single primer pair. It detects copy number changes at the molecular level, and software programs are used for analysis. Identification of deletions or duplications can indicate pathogenic mutations, thus MLPA is an important diagnostic tool used in clinical pathology laboratories worldwide.

Confined placental mosaicism (CPM) represents a discrepancy between the chromosomal makeup of the cells in the placenta and the cells in the fetus. CPM was first described by Kalousek and Dill in 1983. CPM is diagnosed when some trisomic cells are detected on chorionic villus sampling and only normal cells are found on a subsequent prenatal test, such as amniocentesis or fetal blood sampling. In theory, CPM is when the trisomic cells are found only in the placenta. CPM is detected in approximately 1-2% of ongoing pregnancies that are studied by chorionic villus sampling (CVS) at 10 to 12 weeks of pregnancy. Chorionic villus sampling is a prenatal procedure which involves a placental biopsy. Most commonly when CPM is found it represents a trisomic cell line in the placenta and a normal diploid chromosome complement in the baby. However, the fetus is involved in about 10% of cases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trisomy 16</span> Partial or complete triplication of chromosome 16

Trisomy 16 is a chromosomal abnormality in which there are 3 copies of chromosome 16 rather than two. It is the most common autosomal trisomy leading to miscarriage, and the second most common chromosomal cause. About 6% of miscarriages have trisomy 16. Those mostly occur between 8 and 15 weeks after the last menstrual period.

Sequenom, Inc. is an American company based in San Diego, California. It develops enabling molecular technologies, and highly sensitive laboratory genetic tests for NIPT. Sequenom's wholly owned subsidiary, Sequenom Center for Molecular Medicine (SCMM), offers multiple clinical molecular genetics tests to patients, including MaterniT21, plus a noninvasive prenatal test for trisomy 21, trisomy 18, and trisomy 13, and the SensiGene RHD Fetal RHD genotyping test.

Ravinder (Rav) Dhallan is the chairman and chief executive officer of Ravgen.

Natera, Inc. is a clinical genetic testing company based in Austin, Texas that specializes in non-invasive, cell-free DNA (cfDNA) testing technology, with a focus on women’s health, cancer, and organ health. Natera’s proprietary technology combines novel molecular biology techniques with a suite of bioinformatics software that allows detection down to a single molecule in a tube of blood. Natera operates CAP-accredited laboratories certified under the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA) in San Carlos, California and Austin, Texas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dennis Lo</span> Hong Kong molecular biologist

Dennis Lo Yuk-ming is a Hong Kong molecular biologist, best known for his contributions to the development of non-invasive prenatal testing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diana Bianchi</span> American medical geneticist and neonatologist

Diana W. Bianchi is the director of the U.S. National Institutes of Health Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, a post often called “the nation’s pediatrician.” She is a medical geneticist and neonatologist noted for her research on fetal cell microchimerism and prenatal testing. Bianchi had previously been the Natalie V. Zucker Professor of Pediatrics, Obstetrics, and Gynecology at Tufts University School of Medicine and founder and executive director of the Mother Infant Research Institute at Tufts Medical Center. She also has served as Vice Chair for Research in the Department of Pediatrics at the Floating Hospital for Children at Tufts Medical Center.

Circulating free DNA (cfDNA) (also known as cell-free DNA) are degraded DNA fragments released to body fluids such as blood plasma, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, etc. Typical sizes of cfDNA fragments reflect chromatosome particles (~165bp), as well as multiples of nucleosomes, which protect DNA from digestion by apoptotic nucleases. The term cfDNA can be used to describe various forms of DNA freely circulating in body fluids, including circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA), cell-free mitochondrial DNA (ccf mtDNA), cell-free fetal DNA (cffDNA) and donor-derived cell-free DNA (dd-cfDNA). Elevated levels of cfDNA are observed in cancer, especially in advanced disease. There is evidence that cfDNA becomes increasingly frequent in circulation with the onset of age. cfDNA has been shown to be a useful biomarker for a multitude of ailments other than cancer and fetal medicine. This includes but is not limited to trauma, sepsis, aseptic inflammation, myocardial infarction, stroke, transplantation, diabetes, and sickle cell disease. cfDNA is mostly a double-stranded extracellular molecule of DNA, consisting of small fragments (50 to 200 bp) and larger fragments (21 kb) and has been recognized as an accurate marker for the diagnosis of prostate cancer and breast cancer.

Urinary cell-free DNA (ucfDNA) refers to DNA fragments in urine released by urogenital and non-urogenital cells. Shed cells on urogenital tract release high- or low-molecular-weight DNA fragments via apoptosis and necrosis, while circulating cell-free DNA (cfDNA) that passes through glomerular pores contributes to low-molecular-weight DNA. Most of the ucfDNA is low-molecular-weight DNA in the size of 150-250 base pairs. The detection of ucfDNA composition allows the quantification of cfDNA, circulating tumour DNA, and cell-free fetal DNA components. Many commercial kits and devices have been developed for ucfDNA isolation, quantification, and quality assessment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trisomy X</span> Chromosome disorder in women

Trisomy X, also known as triple X syndrome and characterized by the karyotype 47,XXX, is a chromosome disorder in which a female has an extra copy of the X chromosome. It is relatively common and occurs in 1 in 1,000 females, but is rarely diagnosed; fewer than 10% of those with the condition know they have it.

Noninvasive prenatal testing (NIPT) is a method used to determine the risk for the fetus being born with certain chromosomal abnormalities, such as trisomy 21, trisomy 18 and trisomy 13. This testing analyzes small DNA fragments that circulate in the blood of a pregnant woman. Unlike most DNA found in the nucleus of a cell, these fragments are not found within the cells, instead they are free-floating, and so are called cell free fetal DNA (cffDNA). These fragments usually contain less than 200 DNA building blocks and arise when cells die, and their contents, including DNA, are released into the bloodstream. cffDNA derives from placental cells and is usually identical to fetal DNA. Analysis of cffDNA from placenta provides the opportunity for early detection of certain chromosomal abnormalities without harming the fetus.

References

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