Childhood obesity in Australia

Last updated
Obesity currently affects 8% of children in Australia. Childhood Obesity.JPG
Obesity currently affects 8% of children in Australia.

Obesity is defined as the excessive accumulation of fat and is predominantly caused when there is an energy imbalance between calorie consumption and calorie expenditure. [2] [3] Childhood obesity is becoming an increasing concern worldwide, and Australia alone recognizes that 1 in 4 children are either overweight or obese. [3] [4]

Contents

For Australians aged between 4 and 17 years, obesity is a very concerning condition as once gained it is favourably harder to be liberated from. Short-term effects on children can mean a decrease in their psychological well-being (stigmatisation and poor self-esteem) [5] as well as physical deteriorations such as sleep apnea, breathlessness and cardiovascular disease. [5] [6] With an increase risk of adult obesity being associated with childhood obesity there are numerous long-term effects that can ultimately hinder the life expectancy of individuals including the development of serious diseases. [7]

In order to combat the worldwide epidemic of childhood obesity it is imperative that the issue is addressed in its early stages. The main preventative measures to be implemented include increasing physical exercise, dietary knowledge and decreasing sedentary behaviours. [6]

Measuring obesity

A table showing Body Mass Index as a measurement of height (m) compared to weight (kg) Body mass index simplified.svg
A table showing Body Mass Index as a measurement of height (m) compared to weight (kg)

Body Mass Index (BMI) is a common and useful measurement of body fat that helps individuals understand the difference between being overweight and obese. The system can be used to calculate a person's Body Mass Index (BMI) by dividing their weight (in kilograms) by the square of their height (in meters). [3] According to the World Health Organisation (2015) a BMI greater than or equal to 25 kg/m2 in adults is overweight and greater than or equal to 30 kg/m2 regards individuals as obese. [3]

Using the BMI method, however, to measure a child's excess weight can encounter regular issues. The Body Mass Index is used to decipher an individual's excess body weight but not their excess body fat. [8] In this way the measurements taken from a child who is at different stages of their sexual maturation compared to another may alter the reliability of the data. Other issues that may affect the results surrounding this method for children and adolescents includes their age, sex, ethnicity muscle and bone mass, their height as well as their sexual maturation levels. [8]

Using the percentile ranking to determine whether or not a child or adolescent between 2–20 years old is overweight or obese inherits the same techniques as a BMI except the interpretation of the data collected is varied. Information gathered using the percentile ranking takes into consideration the child's age and sex, recognising that the amount of body fat regularly changes with age and sex. The BMI-for-age highlights the values among children of the same sex and age and categorises overweight adolescents as being between the 80th percentile and less than the 95th percentile. Obese children are classified as being equal to or greater than the 95th percentile. [8]

Obesity can also be determined by measuring the circumference of an individual's waist. Obesity-waist circumference.svg
Obesity can also be determined by measuring the circumference of an individual's waist.

Although calculating an individual's BMI is the most recommended indicator it doesn't distinguish the risk of disease. Regular monitoring of fat distribution, genetics and fitness levels should be maintained to assess the likelihood of disease. Alternative ways in which an individual can have their weight assessed, other than a BMI test, includes measuring the circumference of their waist or using the skin fold test. [8]

History

As early evolution has it, prehistoric ancestors in the form of hunter/gathers maintained the mentality that food supplies were unpredicted and their next meal was unknown. [9] In this way, ancestors would eat whenever possible and efficiently store the energy absorbed as fat to use when resources were scarce. Since then, the environment in which we live in, has evolved rapidly with food supplies readily and effortlessly available. Consequently, the approach to conservation of energy from food has now been transformed into overeating and under-activity, generating a recipe of chronic disease and premature death. [9]

Childhood obesity has been a consistent health burden throughout the entirety of Australia's history with close regard placed on genetics and an energy imbalance between calorie consumption and expenditure. Between 1985 and 1995 the number of obese children increased dramatically from both perspectives of boys (10.7% to 20.5%) and girls (11.8% to 21.1%) aged 7–15 and 5–17 in the two respective year brackets. [4] In the 10 years that followed, until 2008, figures continued to rise from 21% to 25% resulting in a similar percentile for both males and females. [10] [11] In the 2011/12 Australian Bureau of Statistics- Australian Health Survey, statistics reiterated the lack of substantial preventative methods, highlighting a 1% increase and therefore a total of 26% of children aged between 5–17 years as being either overweight or obese. [10]

World comparisons

The worldwide prevalence of obesity in males (2008) - The darker areas represent a higher percentage of obese males. World map of Male Obesity, 2008.svg
The worldwide prevalence of obesity in males (2008) - The darker areas represent a higher percentage of obese males.
The worldwide prevalence of obesity in females (2008) - The darker areas represent a higher percentage of obese females. World map of Female Obesity, 2008.svg
The worldwide prevalence of obesity in females (2008) - The darker areas represent a higher percentage of obese females.

Childhood obesity is a worldwide epidemic that, in 2009, affected 155 million (1 in 10) 5-17 year olds. [3] In regards to The International Association for the Study of Obesity, figures collected in 2013 highlight that Greece held the highest values for both overweight and obese boys and girls (44% and 38% respectively). [4] Twenty four percent of Australian girls, according to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), were considered obese, ranking in at 10th out of 40 countries. [4] [12]

Both Spain and Canada reported the same statistical findings of 24%. In regards to obese and overweight boys, Australia is ranked 18th, showing an identical figure of 22% to that of the United Kingdom. [4] [12] The lowest ratings of obesity were displayed by Indonesia showing values of 11% and 8% respectively for boys and girls. [12] In 2013, the World Health Organisation estimated that over 42 million children under the age of five were obese with 31 million of these living in developing countries. [13]

Causes

The causes of childhood obesity can be based on both a combination of individual choices and socio-environmental adaptions [6] with genetic factors playing an important role also.

Epigenetic modification is a primary cause in the obesity epidemic. DNA methylation.jpg
Epigenetic modification is a primary cause in the obesity epidemic.

Genetics

Genetics, according to the Australian Health Survey plays a primary role in determining obesity. [10] In 2011/2012 it was recorded that 90% of the Australian population had inherited their obese tendencies due to the epigenetic modifications of their mothers during pregnancy. [10] Interchanging closely with the genetic factor, the environment and individual temptations are also highlighted as contributing causes to the worldwide epidemic. The genetic configuration influences the tendencies to become overweight, and diet and physical activity determines to what extent those tendencies are elaborated. [14]

Diet and parental influence

"Treat" foods that parents are familiarising their children with are key contributors to obesity. High Fat Foods - NCI Visuals Online.jpg
"Treat" foods that parents are familiarising their children with are key contributors to obesity.

Parents, guardians and teachers all play a key role in the mentality that children have towards certain types of foods as they develop. The first five years of a child's life, when developing a familiarisation with solids, can ultimately have a negative influence on the foods that they give preference to in the future. [9] "Treat" food consumption, which is a well- intentioned technique used by parents to reward their children, contributes to between 23- 24% of an individual's total daily energy intake (aged between 2–16 years old). [15]

With no more than 20% being recommended daily, [15] it is visibly clear that adults may not be allowing their children to develop an intrinsic motivation for healthy foods, 'rewarding' them with energy dense snacks such as potato chips, muffins, lollies, and popcorn from the theatre. A large popcorn at Hoyts', Australia's largest cinema chain, contains more than 700 calories, [16] and is the most popular item on their menu.[ citation needed ] According to the Australian Dietary Guidelines 2013 a child aged between 4–8 years old should consume 1 ½ serves of fruit and 4 ½ serves of vegetable daily with individuals aged 9 and above recommended to consume "2 and 5". [4] [17]

Parents can help to positively influence their child's diet by being an active role model and eating a wide variety of fruits and vegetables themselves. Encouraging children to eat a variety of different nutritional snacks and making fruits and vegetables visually appealing through changing their shapes can also help to entice and excite children about fruit and vegetable consumption. [14]

Societal influences

In order for an individual (children) to remain healthy, there must be a balance between the amount of calories consumed and the amount of calories expend (through physical activity). Socio-environmental factors that disrupt this energy consumption/ expenditure balance [2] include changes to the economy (food costs), an increased dependency on cars and sedentary behaviours and an increased marketing of poor nutritional foods.

Media and advertising

The Ronald McDonald character is an iconic figure used by marketers to promote a positive experience for children. Ronald McDonald, Quetzaltenango.jpg
The Ronald McDonald character is an iconic figure used by marketers to promote a positive experience for children.

Advertising is a common aspect of today's society and is strategically conducted and presented and conducted to persuade consumers to respond in a particular way. Approximately 30% of advertisements conducted during children's television viewing hours in Australia are directed on food intending to influence children towards unhealthy food products. [18] Companies such as McDonald's, in particular, have specifically created and designed their advertisements and commercials so that they are appealing and enticing to children. Through the use of bright alluring colours, the introduction of the Happy Meal, the strategic use of playgrounds and the Ronald McDonald character, it is evident that children are the main target audience ( Super Size Me ). [19]

In a similar way, Australian sporting teams are often sponsored by companies who market unhealthy food products to children and young adults. Recent reports show that during a high-profile cricket match, the KFC (Kentucky Fried Chicken) logo was clearly visible for 61% of playing time and XXXX beer logo clearly visible for 75% of playing time in a similar event. [20] As a country dominated by sporting heroes, with a strong child based audience during televised times, the inclusion of unhealthy foods and alcohol sponsorship may indicate to children that even their most idolised sporting heroes support such unhealthy products.

Some children find it hard to grasp the concept of unhealthy products in the same way they have internalised the negative effects of smoking. Advertisements in Australia for tobacco smoking reflect the negative outcomes associated, through the use of graphic and gruesome images. Unhealthy food, in comparison, is not portrayed in the same light, despite the equality of consequences. Instead, commercials, billboards and television advertisements portray fast food and energy dense products with attractive colours and happy/ energetic staff members, persuading children to believe that high calorie junk food promotes a positive and rewarding experience. [21]

Cost and portion sizes

In this same manner, to entice children, the value of energy dense products has also decreased making these products cheaper and more available to younger adults. Despite the prices of these items being reduced, the portion sizes coincidentally have also risen, allowing individuals to pay less for more. [6] [19]

Transport

As a result of the radical development of technology over the past 30 years, individuals have adapted a less active mentality becoming increasingly more reliant on cars as a means of transport and succumbing to more sedentary behaviours. Individuals are more inclined to use a vehicle, bus or train as transportation as opposed to physically walking or riding a bike. This idle perspective that Australians are adopting is a clear contributor to the obesity epidemic. A study carried out in 2008 showing the relationship between walking and obesity in Europe, North America and Australia highlights that the countries with the highest levels of active transportation generally had the lowest obesity rates. [22] The lowest rate of active transportation was seen in the United States (only 8%) and they also, coincidentally, had the highest rate of obesity (34.3%). [22]

Sedentary behaviour

Children spend an unhealthy amount of time watching television. TV highquality.jpg
Children spend an unhealthy amount of time watching television.

Another contributor to the epidemic of childhood obesity has been the increase in sedentary pursuits. Sedentary behaviour includes the time spent using electronic media as a means of entertainment. Examples include: television, seated electronic games (iPad) and computer use, including educational or non educational pursuits. The Australian Governments Department of Health recommends that children aged between 5-12 years should not be sedentary for more than two hours a day. [23]

Socio-economic factors

The socio-economic status of individual families has also been said to be a related cause for overweight and obese individuals. Children who grow up in families who have a lower income are more likely to be obese compared to those who have a higher income and are therefore brought up in higher socio-economic environments. [9] Lack of playground equipment, dangerous roads, and unsafe neighbourhoods are all factors that contribute to a lower level of physical activity. [21]

The financial status of a family has also been reported to be a key influence in the physical well-being of children, as parents may not have the funds to support children in participating in extracurricular activities and physical activity in general. [21] As a result of this, children are more inclined to spend their time partaking in sedentary activities such as watching television. [24] Economic status is also shown to be a major contributor to obesity, as families tend to buy more affordable foods, those which are usually higher in fat and energy density. [21]

Researchers suggest that individuals with a low income are more likely to become obese and those who are more financially stable, less likely. Causation behind this issue is founded on the prices of nutritional-based foods being more expensive thus directing funds towards cheaper and more calorie-dense options such as fast food and takeaway. The minority of the costs of healthy eating, however, firmly outweigh the economic burden that is placed on both the individual and society caused by diet-related chronic disease. [4]

School environment

In order to decrease the prevalence of childhood obesity in Australia both parents and teachers must together develop techniques that best encourage healthy eating. In association to this, parents must also develop stronger understandings of the specific foods that will either benefit or prove unfavourable to their children's health. The establishment of in school programs that urge children to participate in physical activity is also imperative, introducing children to fun methods of exercising such as interactive games. [21]

Effects of obesity

Psychological

Short-term prospects for children in Australia suffering from a Body Mass Index (BMI) of more than 25 kg/m2 [3] include deteriorations in their physical health as well as a decreased psychological well-being. Children who are obese or overweight by the time they reach their schooling careers are likely to become victims of discrimination, bullying and teasing in the play ground. [25] Individuals who are made to feel inferior for their physical appearance develop a self-conscious attitude towards their body image, leading them to foster feelings of depression, anxiety and incompetence. [6] [25]

Psychological detriments of this sort can also have a negative effect on children's ability to form relationships and make friends with peers. The social stigma surrounding the "perfect body image" can also be extremely degrading to adolescents who feel they are unable to meet the expectations of such situations causing further damage mentally and physically (anorexia and bulimia). [26] From a long-term perspective obesity can also cause negative psychological effects on individuals who are discriminated and victimised in the work place. Food is also used as a psychological coping mechanism for overweight adults who indulge when they are feeling stressed, lonely and sad. The guilt felt as a result of this "mindless eating" can, in turn, cause people to feel anxious and distressed. [27]

Physical

Obesity can effect the entire physical health of an individual in the long term. Medical complications of obesity.png
Obesity can effect the entire physical health of an individual in the long term.

The physical implications of obesity in children include sleep apnoea, breathlessness, a reduced tolerance to exercise and orthopaedic and gastrointestinal problems including non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. [4] Children who reciprocate these physical health disadvantages tend to struggle to concentrate more in- school and find it harder to fit in, being marginalised due to the inability to partake in physical exercise. According to Dietitians Australia 25-50% of overweight or obese children with turn out to be obese as adults. [28]

Long-term effects of obesity, therefore, include cardiovascular disease (hypertension and high blood pressure) and particular types of cancers in particular colon, kidney and breast cancer. [4] [10] Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is one of the most common risk factors associated with obesity being characterised as a buildup of fat within the liver cells. [29] Musculoskeletal defects such as osteoarthritis are also said to have a strong link with obesity due to excessive amounts of weight being exerted on the joints. [4] Individuals who have a Body Mass Index (BMI) that is equal to or greater than 25 kg/m2 [3] are also said to have an increased chance of premature morality. [10]

Economic costs and consequences

As a result of the alarming statistics involving the number of obese children in Australia the consequences have also been extensive to the economy. Between the ages of 4–5 years the costs of childhood obesity, according to the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children, has incurred significantly higher medical and pharmaceutical bills. [4] The health system comprised direct health care, indirect health care, and burden of disease costs was estimated at $58.2 billion in 2008. [10] Direct costs included 4 main medical conditions: cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, osteoarthritis and specific forms of cancer with in-direct costs referring to productivity loss (premature morality and sick days) and burden of disease, financial and social costs. In particular cardiovascular accounted for $34.6 billion, cancer, $9.7 billion, type 2 diabetes $8.3 billion and osteoarthritis $5.7 billion. [10]

Preventions/management/treatment

The two most common forms of treatment that are crucial for individuals to carry out to combat obesity include changing to a healthier diet and increasing their physical exercise. [10] In extreme cases, if children are morbidly obese bariatric surgery may be carried out.

Dieting

It is important for parents and teachers to encourage children to consume more fruits and vegetables. Fruit and vegetables basket.jpg
It is important for parents and teachers to encourage children to consume more fruits and vegetables.

In Australia, the "2 Fruit and 5 Veg" campaign is advertised to educate and encourage young children and adults of the necessary nutrients that are needed in a daily diet. [30] For adults who are entirely responsible for the foods that their children consume, it is important that they are aware of the key strategies of a healthy regime. Adults should provide their children with a moderate to low fat diet by limiting the amount of energy dense meals they feed them, reiterate the importance of eating breakfast and encourage children to eat their vegetables. [24] For young adolescents who have a BMI percentile of 80 or above, there are certain weight loss programs available that offer services specified in dietary advice and fitness coaching. [10]

It is also imperative that parents and guardians are well informed regarding healthy eating for their children. Developing strategies on how to encourage their children to eat more healthy foods and grasping the knowledge on how to distinguish between high and low calorie based pre-packaged snacks is crucial. [21]

The food industry also plays a huge part in promoting healthy foods as management from a dietary point of view. Methods include making wholesome foods widely available and affordable for their customers. Closely monitoring and managing the amount of fat, sugar and salt content that is in the foods that are sold is also important. [3]

Physical exercise

A key method of preventing obesity is physical exercise. The "Find 30" campaign reiterates the importance of exercising for at least 30 minutes a day in order to maintain a healthy lifestyle. Jogging with dog at Carcavelos Beach.jpg
A key method of preventing obesity is physical exercise. The "Find 30" campaign reiterates the importance of exercising for at least 30 minutes a day in order to maintain a healthy lifestyle.

Physical exercise, in order for a child to maintain a healthy lifestyle, must be considered a fundamental aspect of their daily regime. [4] The environment including both school and local neighbourhoods where children grow up are an important stimulus of physical activity. Sporting facilities, playgrounds and bike tracks are all encouraging features that influence the length of time a day that a child is physically active. [21] The "Healthy Together Victoria" campaign run by St Pauls Primary in Mildura is a state government funded program that, according to World Health Organisation worker Timthoy Armstrong, is recognised worldwide with New Zealand, the United Kingdom and Canada all participating in similar exercises. The program in Victoria focuses on the health of its students by walking laps every morning and encouraging children to attend the healthy breakfast following, three times a week. [7]

Another campaign that is run in Australia to educate and encourage individuals to regularly exercise is the "Find 30" initiative. Initially developed in 2008, the "find 30 every day" campaign encourages Australian candidates to participate in at least thirty minutes of moderate-intense physical activity as a bench mark for maintaining a healthy lifestyle. [31]

Bariatric surgery

Although there are many short- term preventative methods in place to combat childhood, there are some individuals who return to their initial base weight and therefore might turn to surgical measures to achieve a more lasting effect. [10] Bariatric surgery is an effective procedure used to restrict the patients food intake and decrease absorption of food in the stomach and intestines. [32] Proecdures of this type are said to be able to reduce excess body weight of obese or overweight individuals by 50-75%, ultimately maintaining this weight loss for 16 years following. [10]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Body mass index</span> Relative weight based on mass and height

Body mass index (BMI) is a value derived from the mass (weight) and height of a person. The BMI is defined as the body mass divided by the square of the body height, and is expressed in units of kg/m2, resulting from mass in kilograms (kg) and height in metres (m).

Dieting is the practice of eating food in a regulated way to decrease, maintain, or increase body weight, or to prevent and treat diseases such as diabetes and obesity. As weight loss depends on calorie intake, different kinds of calorie-reduced diets, such as those emphasising particular macronutrients, have been shown to be no more effective than one another. As weight regain is common, diet success is best predicted by long-term adherence. Regardless, the outcome of a diet can vary widely depending on the individual.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Obesity</span> Medical condition in which excess body fat harms health

Obesity is a medical condition, sometimes considered a disease, in which excess body fat has accumulated to such an extent that it can potentially have negative affects on health. People are classified as obese when their body mass index (BMI)—a person's weight divided by the square of the person's height—is over 30 kg/m2; the range 25–30 kg/m2 is defined as overweight. Some East Asian countries use lower values to calculate obesity. Obesity is a major cause of disability and is correlated with various diseases and conditions, particularly cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, obstructive sleep apnea, certain types of cancer, and osteoarthritis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Weight gain</span> Increase in a persons total body mass

Weight gain is an increase in body weight. This can involve an increase in muscle mass, fat deposits, excess fluids such as water or other factors. Weight gain can be a symptom of a serious medical condition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Childhood obesity</span> Obesity in children

Childhood obesity is a condition where excess body fat negatively affects a child's health or well-being. As methods to determine body fat directly are difficult, the diagnosis of obesity is often based on BMI. Due to the rising prevalence of obesity in children and its many adverse health effects it is being recognized as a serious public health concern. The term overweight rather than obese is often used when discussing childhood obesity, as it is less stigmatizing, although the term overweight can also refer to a different BMI category. The prevalence of childhood obesity is known to differ by sex and gender.

Obesity in Mexico is a relatively recent phenomenon, having been widespread since the 1980s with the introduction of ultra-processed food into much of the Mexican food market. Prior to that, dietary issues were limited to under and malnutrition, which is still a problem in various parts of the country. Following trends already ongoing in other parts of the world, Mexicans have been foregoing the traditional Mexican diet high in whole grains, fruits, legumes and vegetables in favor of a diet with more animal products and ultra-processed foods. It has seen dietary energy intake and rates of overweight and obese people rise with seven out of ten at least overweight and a third clinically obese.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Obesity in the United States</span> Overview of obesity in the United States of America

Obesity is common in the United States and is a major health issue associated with numerous diseases, specifically an increased risk of certain types of cancer, coronary artery disease, type 2 diabetes, stroke, and cardiovascular disease, as well as significant increases in early mortality and economic costs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Overweight</span> Above a weight considered healthy

Being overweight or fat is having more body fat than is optimally healthy. Being overweight is especially common where food supplies are plentiful and lifestyles are sedentary.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diet and obesity</span> Effect of diet on obesity


Diet plays an important role in the genesis of obesity. Personal choices, food advertising, social customs and cultural influences, as well as food availability and pricing all play a role in determining what and how much an individual eats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social determinants of obesity</span> Overview of the social determinants of obesity

While genetic influences are important to understanding obesity, they cannot explain the current dramatic increase seen within specific countries or globally. It is accepted that calorie consumption in excess of calorie expenditure leads to obesity; however, what has caused shifts in these two factors on a global scale is much debated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Obesity in the United Kingdom</span> Overview of obesity in the United Kingdom

Obesity in the United Kingdom is a significant contemporary health concern, with authorities stating that it is one of the leading preventable causes of death. In February 2016, former Health Secretary Jeremy Hunt described rising rates of childhood obesity as a "national emergency". The National Childhood Measurement Programme, which measures obesity prevalence among school-age pupils in reception class and year 6, found obesity levels rocketed in both years groups by more than 4 percentage points between 2019–20 and 2020–21, the highest rise since the programme began. Among reception-aged children, those aged four and five, the rates of obesity rose from 9.9% in 2019–20 to 14.4% in 2020–21. By the time they are aged 10 or 11, more than a quarter are obese. In just 12 months, the rate is up from 21% in 2019–20 to 25.5% in 2020–21.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Weight management</span> Techniques for maintaining body weight

Weight management refers to behaviors, techniques, and physiological processes that contribute to a person's ability to attain and maintain a healthy weight. Most weight management techniques encompass long-term lifestyle strategies that promote healthy eating and daily physical activity. Moreover, weight management involves developing meaningful ways to track weight over time and to identify ideal body weights for different individuals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Let's Move!</span> Public health campaign in the United States

Let's Move! is a public health campaign in the United States led by former First Lady Michelle Obama. The campaign aimed to reduce childhood obesity and encourage a healthy lifestyle in children.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prenatal nutrition</span>

Prenatal nutrition addresses nutrient recommendations before and during pregnancy. Nutrition and weight management before and during pregnancy has a profound effect on the development of infants. This is a rather critical time for healthy development since infants rely heavily on maternal stores and nutrient for optimal growth and health outcome later in life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Obesity in the Middle East and North Africa</span> Overview of the causes for and prevalence of obesity in the Middle East and North African countries

Obesity in the Middle East and North Africa is a notable health issue. Out of the fifteen fattest nations in the world as of 2014, 5 were located in the Middle East and North Africa region.

Childhood obesity is defined as a body mass index (BMI) at or above the 96th percentile for children of the same age and sex. It can cause a variety of health problems, including high blood pressure, high cholesterol, heart disease, diabetes, breathing problems, sleeping problems, and joint problems later in life. Children who are obese are at a greater risk for social and psychological problems as well, such as peer victimization, increased levels of aggression, and low self-esteem. Many environmental and social factors have been shown to correlate with childhood obesity, and researchers are attempting to use this knowledge to help prevent and treat the condition. When implemented early, certain forms of behavioral and psychological treatment can help children regain and/or maintain a healthy weight.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Obesity and the environment</span> Overview of environmental factors affecting the incidence of obesity

Obesity and the environment aims to look at the different environmental factors that researchers worldwide have determined cause and perpetuate obesity. Obesity is a condition in which a person's weight is higher than what is considered healthy for their height, and is the leading cause of preventable death worldwide. Obesity can result from several factors such as poor nutritional choices, overeating, genetics, culture, and metabolism. Many diseases and health complications are associated with obesity. Worldwide, the rates of obesity have nearly tripled since 1975, leading health professionals to label the condition as a modern epidemic in most parts of the world. Current worldwide population estimates of obese adults are near 13%; overweight adults total approximately 39%.

Nutrition is the intake of food, considered in relation to the body's dietary needs. Well-maintained nutrition includes a balanced diet as well as a regular exercise routine. Nutrition is an essential aspect of everyday life as it aids in supporting mental as well as physical body functioning. The National Health and Medical Research Council determines the Dietary Guidelines within Australia and it requires children to consume an adequate amount of food from each of the five food groups, which includes fruit, vegetables, meat and poultry, whole grains as well as dairy products. Nutrition is especially important for developing children as it influences every aspect of their growth and development. Nutrition allows children to maintain a stable BMI, reduces the risks of developing obesity, anemia and diabetes as well as minimises child susceptibility to mineral and vitamin deficiencies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Obesity in Thailand</span> Overview of the causes for and prevalence of obesity in Thailand

Obesity in Thailand has been flagged as a major source of health concern, with 32% of the population identifying as overweight and 9% obese. With reference to 2016 data from the World Health Organization (WHO), Thailand has one of the highest incidence of overweight citizens in the South East Asian region, second to only Malaysia. The Thai National Health Examination Surveys (NHES) found that obesity in Thailand more than doubled during the period 1991-2014. This spike in obesity levels has been largely attributed to increased access to junk food, and unhealthy switches from active to sedentary lifestyles. These factors are closely linked to economic growth in the country.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Obesity and sexuality</span> Influence of obesity on sexuality

Being overweight or obese has influence on the sexuality of people in various different aspects. It can include negative aspects such as stigmatization which can be an obstacle for romantic developments, sexual dysfunction and an increased chance of risky sexual behavior. It can also have positive aspects in the form of fat fetishism.

References

  1. ↑ "Overweight and Obesity". Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. 2017. Archived from the original on 2018-12-05. Retrieved 2018-12-05.
  2. 1 2 Local Government Action to Prevent Childhood Obesity. Washington, DC, USA: National Academies Press. 2009.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "WHO | Obesity and overweight". www.who.int. Retrieved 2015-09-01.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 "Childhood overweight and obesity". Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. 2014.
  5. 1 2 "Obesity Prevention | Healthy Schools | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2018-01-29. Retrieved 2015-09-03.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 "Obesity in children - causes - Better Health Channel" . Retrieved 2015-09-01.
  7. 1 2 "Background Briefing 7 December 2014". Radio National. 2014-12-03. Retrieved 2015-09-01.
  8. 1 2 3 4 "Department of Health and Human Services Centres for Disease Control and Prevention" (PDF). Body Mass Index: Considerations for Practitioners.
  9. 1 2 3 4 "Life at 3 - The Science - Childhood Obesity - ABC TV". www.abc.net.au. Retrieved 2015-09-01.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 "No Time to Weight". www.obesityaustralia.org. Archived from the original on 2016-01-31. Retrieved 2015-09-01.
  11. ↑ Olds, T. S.; Tomkinson, G. R.; Ferrar, K. E.; Maher, C. A. (2010). "Trends in the prevalence of childhood overweight and obesity in Australia between 1985 and 2008". International Journal of Obesity. 34 (1): 57–66. doi:10.1038/ijo.2009.211. PMID   19823187.
  12. 1 2 3 health at a glance 2013. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2013. p. 48.
  13. ↑ "WHO | Childhood overweight and obesity". www.who.int. Retrieved 2015-09-03.
  14. 1 2 EUFIC. "Parental influence on children's food preferences and energy intake (EUFIC)". www.eufic.org. Archived from the original on 2015-09-01. Retrieved 2015-09-01.
  15. 1 2 "Department of Health | 2007 Australian National Children's Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey - Key Findings". www.health.gov.au. Retrieved 2015-09-03.
  16. ↑ "Calories in Hoyts Cinemas Large Popcorn - Calories and Nutrition Facts | MyFitnessPal.com". www.myfitnesspal.com. Retrieved 2018-12-06.
  17. ↑ "Australian Dietary Guidelines" (PDF). Eat for Health. Australian Government. 2013.
  18. ↑ "Food advertising directed at children | Nutrition Australia". www.nutritionaustralia.org. Retrieved 2015-09-01.
  19. 1 2 Morgan Spurlock- "Super Size Me" Documentary (2004)
  20. ↑ "Should industry care for children?". Public Health Advocacy and Law in Australia. 2009.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Hesketh, K.; Waters, E.; Green, J.; Salmon, L.; Williams, J. (2005-03-01). "Healthy eating, activity and obesity prevention: a qualitative study of parent and child perceptions in Australia". Health Promotion International. 20 (1): 19–26. doi: 10.1093/heapro/dah503 . hdl: 10536/DRO/DU:30008911 . ISSN   0957-4824. PMID   15668217.
  22. 1 2 Bassett, David R. Jr.; Pucher, John; Buehler, Ralph; Thompson, and Scott E. Crouter, Dixie L. (2008). "Walking, cycling and obesity rates in Europe, North America and Australia". Journal of Physical Activity and Health. 5 (6): 795–814. doi:10.1123/jpah.5.6.795. PMID   19164816. S2CID   9821201.
  23. ↑ "Department of Health | Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour". www.health.gov.au. Retrieved 2015-09-01.
  24. 1 2 Fast Facts: Obesity. Oxford, England: D. Haslam and G. Wittert. 2014.
  25. 1 2 "The Emotional Toll of Obesity". HealthyChildren.org. Retrieved 2015-09-03.
  26. ↑ "Eating Disorders and Obesity". www.nedc.com.au. Retrieved 2015-09-01.
  27. ↑ "Journal of Lancaster General Health - Behavioral and Psychological Factors in Obesity". www.jlgh.org. Retrieved 2015-09-03.
  28. ↑ "Childhood Obesity | Dietitians Australia". dietitiansaustralia.org.au. Retrieved 2020-09-07.
  29. ↑ "Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease - Mayo Clinic". www.mayoclinic.org. Retrieved 2015-09-01.
  30. ↑ "Go for 2 and 5" (PDF). 2 fruit 5 veg. Government of Western Australia. 2004.
  31. ↑ "Find Thirty | The campaign". www.findthirty.tas.gov.au. Retrieved 2015-09-01.
  32. ↑ "What is Bariatric Surgery?". 2010-03-11. Retrieved 2015-09-01.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.