Christians in the military

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Christians have been present in the military since after the death of Jesus, [1] Marinus of Caesarea, Julius the Veteran, and other military saints were Christians who were soldiers.

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Other Christians, such as Maximilian of Tebessa, were conscientious objectors, believing that the Bible supported Christian pacifism.

Early Christianity

In the first centuries after the time of Jesus, some soldiers decided to follow Christianity, but few Christians decided to join the military voluntarily. [2] [3] In the second century, Celsus accused Christians of shirking their civic duty by refusing to serve in the army; Origen, a Christian scholar, agreed with this accusation, but suggested that Christians serve their communities in different ways. [4] The main reason for this was that Christianity was seen as a religion of love and peace; therefore war and killing was seen as being in opposition to a Christian life. However, other aspects of army life, such as arresting Christians and taking part in mandatory pagan practices and sacrifices, would also have been at odds with Christianity. [4] Origen believed in the idea of a "just war", but also believed that Christians could not be part of military warfare. [2]

In the third century Tertullian asked if it was possible for a Christian to "ask a watchword from the emperor who has already received one from God", [4] as well as noting that Jesus had taught that "he who lives by the sword shall die by the sword"; [5] however he did believe that Christians should be loyal citizens and pray for their emperor. [2]

In 212, the Constitutio Antoniniana was issued by the Roman emperor Caracalla. [6] This stated that all free men in the empire were to be given full Roman citizenship. This, combined with the later conversion of Constantine, brought a halt to religious persecution of Christians and after some time, some Christians began to look at the military as a possible career. It has been suggested that this would later underpin the enforcement of uniform religious belief. [7]

Under the Emperor Diocletian, attempts were made to purge Christians from the army in 299. However, the Roman army continued to include many Christians, and the presence of large numbers of Christians in his army may have been a factor in the conversion of Constantine I to Christianity. [8]

Christianity and the "Just War"

After Constantine's conversion to Christianity, theologians began to look at war and the military in detail. In the fifth century, Saint Augustine took Romans 13:4 [9] as a basis for each Christian to decide for themselves if they wished to join an army. He also noted that "No war is undertaken by a good state except on behalf of good faith or for safety" [10]

The Orthodox Church took the view that it was better to change the soul of the enemy rather than to kill them; [11] however, they also saw an obligation to defend against a threat, and as such saw war as a lesser, necessary evil.

In the 13th century, Thomas Aquinas set out the criteria for a just war in the Summa Theologica . [12] His ideas, based on Christian mercy, influenced rulers and military for several centuries. [13]

Holy war

Over the next few centuries, Christians had less reservations about joining an army, especially for a 'holy war'. In particular, the Crusades were initiated as a necessary war to reclaim the Holy Land against the enemies of God and were supported by Pope Urban II, [14] who offered religious rewards of forgiveness of sins and glory in heaven to those who joined the conflict. The armed Order of the Knights Templar was a set up during this time. [15]

The Reformation

When large groups of Christians broke away from the Roman Catholic church in the 16th century, many of them followed theologians such as John Calvin and Zwingli. Calvin's beliefs included the Just War tradition and the idea that war was justified as a means of preserving the peace. [16] [17] Zwingli was originally a chaplain in the Swiss Mercenary Army and his experiences there led to him championing the case against mercenaries. [18] However, he did support the use of the military in 'holy war' to forcibly convert others to his own denomination of Christianity [19] and he died in battle. [20]

From the start of the Reformation some groups, particularly Anabaptists, took the position of pacificism and refused to be part of politics or the military; [21] with followers being executed for this belief. [22]

Conscientious objectors

In 1575 Mennonite Christians in the Netherlands whose consciences would not allow them to join the military were exempted from military service if they paid a sum of money to the king. [23] [24]

In England, the Militia Act was created in 1757. Militia members were selected by ballot, but Quakers were allowed to pay £10 (approximately £2300 in 2023) to nominate a substitute to take their place. A number of Quakers objected to both these options and were imprisoned; [25] this continued for several decades. In the lead-up to WWI, the Quakers' Yearly Meeting stated "We must continue to offer strenuous opposition to the establishment in any part of the British Empire of a system of compulsory military training.": [25] however, after the war began, about 30% of members enlisted. There were several conscientious objects among the Quakers, including seven who died in England during the war. [25] During the war a No-Conscription Fellowship was set up and by 1916, there was a British conscience clause which allowed conscientious objectors to argue for their non-conscription in front of a tribunal. [26]

In the US, out of 2,100 people who objected to joining the war due to religious reasons, 1890 of them agreed to take on non-combative work, mainly in factories and farms. [23] Figures such as Ben Salmon inspired other Christians to take part in anti-war efforts. [27]

The presence of Christians on both sides led to the unofficial Christmas truces of World War I, commemorated in the film Joyeux Noël .

In the late 20th century, several Christian denominations preached a complete ban on all combatant service, including Seventh-day Adventists, [28] Jehovah's Witnesses [29] and Christadelphians, [30] as well as Anabaptists such as Mennonites and the Amish. This can lead to social pressure and possible arrest, especially during times of war. [31] [32]

In 2023, this discussion has come to the fore in both Ukraine and Russia. [33] [34] [35]

21st century

Many denominations will see the choice of carrying out military service as being a personal and individual one. [36] [37] [38] Some churches will ask their members to review the state of their country before agreeing to join its military. [39]

In the last few decades, many Christians have joined military forces in countries around the world. There are a number of support groups which publicly declare their work, including Armed Forces' Christian Union, [40] [41] Military Ministries International, [42] Defence Christian Network [43] and Military Christian Fellowship, which has several groups around the world. [44] [45] [46]

There is an ongoing public debate in Christianity about the place of Christians in the military. [47] [48] [49] [50]

Military chaplains minister to Christians serving in the military forces of many countries. [51] [52] Organisations such as the Armed Forces Christian Union (UK) and Officers' Christian Fellowship (US) are made up of Christians in the military.

Religion in The US military

The separation of church and state in the US means that legally Christianity does not have a special place in the military. [53]

Most American military members identify as Protestant and Non Denominational Christians. In 2009, the majority of overall US veterans and WWII US veterans were Protestants. [54] [55] [56]

Religion in the UK military

In 2022, 60.% of the UK Regular Forces stated that they had a Christian background. [57] However, earlier statistics suggested that less than 10% of these were practising Christians. [58]

See also

Related Research Articles

Anabaptism is a Christian movement which traces its origins to the Radical Reformation in the 16th century. Anabaptists believe that baptism is valid only when candidates freely confess their faith in Christ and request to be baptized. Commonly referred to as believer's baptism, it is opposed to baptism of infants, who are not able to make a conscious decision to be baptized.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pacifism</span> Philosophy opposing war or violence

Pacifism is the opposition or resistance to war, militarism or violence. The word pacifism was coined by the French peace campaigner Émile Arnaud and adopted by other peace activists at the tenth Universal Peace Congress in Glasgow in 1901. A related term is ahimsa, which is a core philosophy in Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. While modern connotations are recent, having been explicated since the 19th century, ancient references abound.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conscientious objector</span> Person refusing military service on moral grounds

A conscientious objector is an "individual who has claimed the right to refuse to perform military service" on the grounds of freedom of conscience or religion. The term has also been extended to objecting to working for the military–industrial complex due to a crisis of conscience. In some countries, conscientious objectors are assigned to an alternative civilian service as a substitute for conscription or military service.

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Peace churches are Christian churches, groups or communities advocating Christian pacifism or Biblical nonresistance. The term historic peace churches refers specifically only to three church groups among pacifist churches:

Nonresistance is "the practice or principle of not resisting authority, even when it is unjustly exercised". At its core is discouragement of, even opposition to, physical resistance to an enemy. It is considered as a form of principled nonviolence or pacifism which rejects all physical violence, whether exercised on individual, group, state or international levels. Practitioners of nonresistance may refuse to retaliate against an opponent or offer any form of self-defense. Nonresistance is often associated with particular religious groups, such as Anabaptist Christianity.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Christian pacifism</span> Theological and ethical position

Christian pacifism is the theological and ethical position according to which pacifism and non-violence have both a scriptural and rational basis for Christians, and affirms that any form of violence is incompatible with the Christian faith. Christian pacifists state that Jesus himself was a pacifist who taught and practiced pacifism and that his followers must do likewise. Notable Christian pacifists include Martin Luther King Jr., Leo Tolstoy, Adin Ballou, and Ammon Hennacy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protestantism in Russia</span> Aspect of religious life in Russia

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Outline of Christianity</span> Overview of and topical guide to Christianity

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Christianity and violence</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Christianity in Kyrgyzstan</span>

Christianity has a long history in Kyrgyzstan, with the earliest archaeological remains of churches belonging to the Church of the East in modern-day Suyab dating back to the 7th century. By the 9th century an archdiocese of the Church of the East cared for the Christians of Kyrgyzstan and adjacent areas in eastern Turkestan. Although primarily Turkic there was also an Armenian community in what today is Kyrgyzstan by the 14th century. By the 15th century, however, there were no longer ecclesiastical structures of any church caring for what is today Kyrgyzstan and Islam gained the ascendancy amongst the Kyrgyz people.

The following is a bibliography of books in the English language relating to the general topic of Christadelphians.

Articles related to Christianity include:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Christianity in Taiwan</span>

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References

  1. ↑ Bible Gateway website, Matthew 8:5-13
  2. 1 2 3 Imperium Romanium, Christians against military service in Roman legions
  3. ↑ Sage Journals, The Rejection of Military Service by the Early Christians by Edward A. Ryan
  4. 1 2 3 Ancient Rome Live website, Christians and the Roman Army
  5. ↑ Bible Gateway, Matthew 26 verse 52
  6. ↑ Richard Lim, "Late Antiquity," in The Edinburgh Companion to Ancient Greece and Rome (Edinburgh University Press, 2010), p. 114.
  7. ↑ Kaldellis, Anthony (November 2023). The New Roman Empire: A History of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. pp. 20, 66, 71. ISBN   978-0-19-754935-3.
  8. ↑ John Helgeland, Christians and the Roman Army from Marcus Aurelius to Constantine , in Hildegard Temporini and Wolfgang Haase, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung , Walter de Gruyter, 1979, ISBN   3-11-007822-8, pp. 724 ff.
  9. ↑ Bible Gateway, Romans 13:4, But if you do wrong, be afraid, for rulers do not bear the sword for no reason. They are God’s servants, agents of wrath to bring punishment on the wrongdoer.
  10. ↑ City of God, 22.6, quoted in Lockwood, Thornton. "Cicero's Philosophy of Just War". PhilArchive. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
  11. ↑ St Johhn The Evangelist Orthodox Church website, Doctrine page, The Orthodox Church’s Teachings on War
  12. ↑ Aquinas, Thomas. Summa Theologica. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. pp. pt. II, sec. 2, q. 40, a. 1.
  13. ↑ Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "Just War"
  14. ↑ The Metropolitan Museum Of Art website, “The Crusades (1095-1291)”
  15. ↑ Smithsonian Magazine website, article by Dan Jones dated July 2018
  16. ↑ Political Theology website, John Calvin and the Logic of Armed Resistance, Pt. 2, dated July 20, 2014
  17. ↑ JStor website, Harold S Bender, The Pacifism of the Sixteenth Century Anabaptists, page 121
  18. ↑ Johns Hopkins University, Renaissance Quarterly, Volume 58, Number 1, Spring 2005
  19. ↑ Encyclopedia.com website, Protestant Christianity Biographies page
  20. ↑ Reformed Forum website
  21. ↑ Third Millennium website, Dr Jack L Arnold The Theology of the Reformers and the Anabaptists
  22. ↑ JStor website, Harold S Bender, The Pacifism of the Sixteenth Century Anabaptists, page 122
  23. 1 2 Jama Network, article dated May 15, 2018
  24. ↑ Liberty Magazine website, article by Charles Mills, May/June 2017
  25. 1 2 3 Liverpool University Press, 'Our Quaker Dead’: A Forgotten Quaker History, dated January 6, 2019
  26. ↑ Imperial War Museums
  27. ↑ Dear, John (February 23, 2010). "Ben Salmon and the Army of Peace". National Catholic Reporter . Retrieved September 20, 2023.
  28. ↑ Adventists in Uniform
  29. ↑ JW.org official website, FAQ section
  30. ↑ Christadelphian Military Service Committee website
  31. ↑ Quaker Council for European Affairs, 2005 report on The Right To Conscientious Objection in Europe
  32. ↑ War Resistors International website, article on Juma Nazarov
  33. ↑ CNE News website, article dated June 29, 2022
  34. ↑ Religion Unplugged website, article by Felix Corey, dated May 10, 2023
  35. ↑ Forum 18 website, article by Victoria Arnold dated July 21, 2023
  36. ↑ Center On Conscience And War website, Presbyterians
  37. ↑ Center On Conscience And War website, Baptists
  38. ↑ Center On Conscience And War website, Greek Orthodox
  39. ↑ Orthodox Church Of America website
  40. ↑ COBSEO website
  41. ↑ UK Charity Commission website
  42. ↑ Military Ministries International website
  43. ↑ Defence Christian Network website
  44. ↑ MCF Australia website
  45. ↑ MCF Canada
  46. ↑ MCF Singapore website
  47. ↑ Officers’ Christian Fellowship website, article by Lieutenant General William K. Harrison, Jr
  48. ↑ Center for the Study of Bible and Violence website, article by Brandon Hurlbert dated December 7, 2020
  49. ↑ Focus On The Family website, Teens Q&As, Christians and Military Service
  50. ↑ Red Letter Christians website, article by Craig M Watts dated November 6, 2011
  51. ↑ US Air Force website, Careers page
  52. ↑ Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America website
  53. ↑ Military Times website, article by Karen Jowers dated September 8, 2023
  54. ↑ "First Liberty website, How Religious Is Our Military? Why Faith Continues To Be A Force Multiplier".
  55. ↑ Dreazen, Yochi J. (November 9, 2009). "Wall Street Journal, Muslim Population in the Military Raises Difficult Issues". Wall Street Journal– via www.wsj.com.
  56. ↑ Gaylaw: Challenging the Apartheid of the Closet. Harvard University Press. 30 June 2009. ISBN   9780674036581.
  57. ↑ UK government website, UK armed forces biannual diversity statistics, April 1, 2022
  58. ↑ Vexen website
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