Cornelius de Vos or de Vois or Devosse (fl. 1565-1585), was a Dutch or Flemish mine entrepreneur and mineral prospector working in England and Scotland. He was said to have been a "picture-maker" or portrait artist. De Vos is known for gold mining in Scotland and founding saltworks at Newhaven near Edinburgh.
In 1558 Cornelius de Vos was in London, and married Helen, the widow of a butcher, Nicholas Howe, and John Gylmyne. [1] He was recorded as a member of the French church in Farringdon in 1568. [2]
De Vos was granted rights to mine and make copperas and alum in England on the Isle of Wight and in Devon by letters patent in 1564, [3] [4] and pursued mining concessions in Ireland. [5] According to his rival for Irish mining rights, William Humfrey, Cornelius de Vos obtained patents for mine drainage methods previously granted to Burchard Kranich. [6] He worked for James Blount, 6th Baron Mountjoy at Canford Cliffs in Dorset, with little success. [7]
Cornelius de Vos was a shareholder in the English Company of Mines Royal. [8] He went prospecting for gold in Crawford Muir in Scotland in 1566. [9] There was already competition, Mary, Queen of Scots and Lord Darnley had granted a concession to three Edinburgh burgesses, James Carmichael the warden of the mint, Master James Lyndsay, and Andrew Stevenson, while the mint-master John Acheson and John Aslowan were already working in Wanlockhead and Glengonnar. [10]
In October 1566 Cornelius de Vos arrived in Keswick in Cumbria with an English and a Scottish partner (whose names are unknown). He brought a sample of sand in a napkin from the Scottish gold fields, found by a woman worker washing for gold, a "mayde of Scotlande". The German miners at Keswick tested the sample and told him the sand was rich in gold. The supervisor at Keswick, Thomas Thurland, noted this as suspicious activity, possibly against his or Company interests, and reported it to William Cecil. Thurland also wrote to Queen Elizabeth in alarmist terms about "secret practices with merchant strangers and by some foreign princes to have of the Scottish queen (Mary, Queen of Scots) the mines in Crawford Moor nigh adjoining to your majesty's west borders", mines he hoped to work himself. [11] Thurland was in a partnership with a German miner, Daniel Houghstetter or Hechstetter, between 1565 and 1577, with 24 investors. [12]
The Company of Mines Royal tried to get an interest in Scottish gold mining and panning from Mary, Queen of Scots. Meanwhile, Cornelius de Vos and his business partners, two London merchants Anthony Hickman and John Achillay, gained a permit to work salt at Newhaven from Mary and the Earl of Bothwell shortly after their marriage in May 1567. These salt works were revived by Eustachius Roche in 1592. [13]
De Vos was awarded a traditional 19 year "tack" of the gold mines by Regent Moray in 1568. Cornelius appeared before the Privy Council of Scotland on 4 March 1568 to register his exclusive contract to work all the gold and silver mines in Scotland. He was obliged to start work before June 1569. If any lead, tin, or copper was found he was to extract it and pay the profits to the Scottish crown. For every hundred ounces of native gold or silver he was to pay eight ounces to the treasury, and four ounces for any metal that needed to be refined. [14] He set up his own joint-stock company to recover the gold. Cornelius however still lacked knowledge of chemistry and mineralogy and again had to send one of his workers, a Dutch miner called Rennius, to Daniel Hechstetter at Keswick to assay samples of sand. [15]
Digging at Crawford Moor continued, but Regent Morton was unhappy with the contract. In June 1574 Morton went to Crawford Moor in person to see the workings and set miners to work. Cornelius de Vos approached the English ambassador Henry Killigrew in August 1574 with a message for William Cecil about the mines, presumably seeking investment and sponsorship. [16] On 7 February 1575 Morton lent £500 to Cornelius de Vos and his three German or "Almain" partners, Abraham Peterson, Johnne Kelliner, and Helias Clutene. [17]
In June 1575 Morton wrote to James MacGill of Nether Rankeillour, who was now Lord Clerk Register, who had witnessed the 1568 contract. He described the terms of his contract as "captious and doubtful in many points and nothing to the king's profit". [18] Soon after, the mining concession was granted to one of de Vos' partners Abraham Peterson in February 1576. [19]
In 1580, although he had lost his political power, Morton received gold which was coined to the value of £678, possibly connected with mining. [20] The goldmining concession was given to Thomas Foulis in 1594.
In London his relationship with Margriete van der Eertbrugghe came into scrutiny by the Dutch Church in October 1570. [21] In 1573 he is known to have written letters to the Mayor of London, Lionel Duckett, and others via his cousin Arnold. As he is linked with the painter Arnold van Bronckorst in Stephen Atkinson's story, it has been suggested that this Arnold was the same person. [22]
A "Cornelis Clewtinge de Vos" , Dutchman, was buried at St Nicholas Acons in London on 11 December 1586, who was perhaps this mining entrepreneur. The name "Clewtinge" seems to be the surname of Helias Clutene, the partner of Cornelius in 1575. [23] Mine entrepreneurs in Scotland of the next generation included George Douglas of Parkhead, George Bowes, and Bevis Bulmer.
In 1619 an English gold prospector Stephen Atkinson wrote a kind of historical prospectus for gold mining in Scotland. This includes the story of "Master Cornelius" or "Cornelius Devosse". Atkinson described Cornelius Devosse as "a most cunning picture maker, and excellent in art for the trial of mineral and mineral stones", although the archival record of his activity shows that he lacked lapidary or chemical knowledge and no other source mentions him as portrait painter. [24] According to Atkinson, the painter Nicholas Hilliard invested in the Scottish gold mine with another painter Arnold Bronckhorst. The historian Elizabeth Goldring dates Hilliard's involvement to the years 1573 or 1574. [25]
Atkinson's narrative seems in part based on hearsay but he describes using a "book of record" of Cornelius de Vos' mining operation at Crawford Moor and a record of the works of George Bowes. This seems to have been an account of wages. Atkinson says that he himself had worked with Daniel Hechstetter, the miner who Cornelius de Vos had consulted at Keswick. He wrote that Nicholas Hilliard, then still alive, would confirm that he also lost money in the venture. [26]
Atkinson states that Cornelius de Vos went into Scotland with a recommendation from Elizabeth I of England, was given permission to prospect and found rich ore, which describes the events of October 1566. [27] He gives the names of four partners in the enterprise; the Earl of Morton, "Robert Bellenden (Secretary of Scotland)" perhaps intending John Bellenden (Lord Justice Clerk), Abraham Peterson a Dutch man residing in Edinburgh, and James Reid an Edinburgh burgess. [28]
Cornelius de Vos and his partners raised capital and he was given a commission by Regent Moray, (in March 1568). Atkinson says that Cornelius had 120 men at work and employed men and women, "lads and lasses, idle men and women", who had been begging before. Most of the gold was bought by the Scottish mint for coins. The mines were apparently worked by sub-contractors. Atkinson mentions a Scottish workman John Gibson of Crawford town who worked at "Glengaber Water" (Glengonnar), who he claims to have met, and another Dutch miner, Abraham Grey, who he found in the records. Grey, known as "Grey Beard", worked at Wanlockhead, (and sometimes said to be the same person as Abraham Peterson). [29] Regent Morton had a basin made of Wanlockhead gold and presented it to the king of France, apparently to advertise Scotland's mineral wealth. [30]
Atkinson takes up the subject of Cornelius de Vos again, as a story from the reign of Elizabeth, "some forty years past", after describing his own recent personal involvement with Scottish gold, Hilderston silver, and John Murray of the Bedchamber. [31] In this version, a young Cornelius persuaded his friend the painter Nicholas Hilliard to join his Scottish goldmining venture. Hilliard sent his associate, Arnold Bronckhorst, a painter and mineralogist, into Scotland. Hilliard's efforts and influence secured a patent for Cornelius de Vos, (perhaps meaning a letter of recommendation from Elizabeth to Morton). Atkinson then describes Cornelius de Vos exporting gold ore for assay. Arnold Bronckhorst was intended to be the agent for selling the gold to Scottish mint in Edinburgh but failed to secure a contract. He was, however, appointed to be the royal portrait painter. [32]
Bronckhorst was officially appointed as royal painter in Scotland in 1581, a few years after the goldmining events Atkinson described. [33] However, portraits made during the years of Morton's regency have been attributed to him. Several of the individuals named by Atkinson appear in the record. Abraham Peterson, the partner and successor of Cornelius de Vos, was a Dutch or Flemish metal worker or artist, as well as a mining entrepreneur, who worked in the Scottish mint and designed coins for Regent Morton, including placks and bawbees in April 1576. [34] James Reid, who Atkinson identified as a partner of Cornelius de Vos, stood security with James Skathowie of the Canongate for the £500 loan from Regent Morton in 1575. Cornelius never repaid this loan, and after Morton was executed in 1581, Reid and Skathowie's heirs were liable to repay the money to the Earl of Lennox. [35]
Nicholas Hilliard was an English goldsmith and limner best known for his portrait miniatures of members of the courts of Elizabeth I and James I of England. He mostly painted small oval miniatures, but also some larger cabinet miniatures, up to about 10 inches tall, and at least two famous half-length panel portraits of Elizabeth. He enjoyed continuing success as an artist, and continuing financial troubles, for forty-five years. His paintings still exemplify the visual image of Elizabethan England, very different from that of most of Europe in the late sixteenth century. Technically he was very conservative by European standards, but his paintings are superbly executed and have a freshness and charm that has ensured his continuing reputation as "the central artistic figure of the Elizabethan age, the only English painter whose work reflects, in its delicate microcosm, the world of Shakespeare's earlier plays."
Leadhills, originally settled for the accommodation of miners, is a village in South Lanarkshire, Scotland, 5+3⁄4 miles (9.3 km) WSW of Elvanfoot. The population in 1901 was 835. It was originally known as Waterhead.
The Society of the Mines Royal was one of two English mining monopoly companies incorporated by royal charter in 1568, the other being the Company of Mineral and Battery Works.
Arnold Bronckhorst, or Bronckorst or Van Bronckhorst was a Flemish or Dutch painter who was court painter to James VI of Scotland.
The Battle of Craibstone was fought on 20 November 1571 between Clan Gordon and the Clan Forbes on an area that has now been constructed over, found in central Aberdeen, Scotland. It was part of the Marian civil war in which the Clan Forbes supported the King James VI and the Clan Gordon supported Mary, Queen of Scots.
Sir James MacGill, Lord Rankeillor of Nether Rankeillour, was a Scottish courtier and Senator of the College of Justice.
Stephen Atkinson, English metallurgist and author of The Discoverie and Historie of Gold Mynes in Scotland.
The Marian civil war in Scotland (1568–1573) was a period of conflict which followed the abdication of Mary, Queen of Scots, and her escape from Lochleven Castle in May 1568. Those who ruled in the name of her infant son James VI fought against the supporters of the Queen, who was exiled in England. Edinburgh Castle, which was garrisoned in her name, became the focus of the conflict and surrendered only after an English intervention in May 1573. The conflict in 1570 was called an "internecine war in the bowels of this commonwealth", and the period was called soon after an "internecine war driven by questions against authority."
Adam Gordon of Auchindoun (1545–1580) was a Scottish knight, younger brother of the Earl of Huntly and military leader during the Marian civil war on behalf of Mary, Queen of Scots in north west Scotland. In Scottish ballad lore, Adam became known as Edom o'Gordon.
Sir Bevis Bulmer (1536–1615) was an English mining engineer during the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I. He has been called "one of the great speculators of that era". Many of the events in his career were recorded by Stephen Atkinson in The Discoveries and Historie of the Gold Mynes in Scotland, compiled in part from a lost manuscript by Bulmer entitled Bulmer's Skill.
The German mines at Caldbeck were part of the operations of the Company of Mines Royal in Caldbeck, which introduced German miners from modern day Austria and Bavaria into the Lake District in 1563, though earlier works in the area are thought to have been begun in the 1300s. The importance of the operation lies in its historical significance as the first large-scale copper mining and smelting operation in the British Islands which was well-documented. New smelting techniques were introduced which were allowed the treatment of argentiferous copper sulphide ores and the more complex lead-copper-silver ores from Caldbeck.
George Douglas of Parkhead,, was a Scottish landowner, mining entrepreneur, Provost of Edinburgh, and Keeper of Edinburgh Castle.
George Bowes was an English prospector. He mined for gold in Scotland.
Eustachius Roche was a Flemish mining entrepreneur in Scotland.
John Acheson was a Scottish goldsmith, mining entrepreneur, and official of the mint.
Hilderston or Hilderstone in West Lothian, Scotland, was the site of the discovery of a vein of silver in 1606 and a mining operation that attracted international interest. King James used rumours of a silver bonanza to leverage a loan in the City of London. He took over the mine works, an act sometimes regarded as an example of nationalization. The enterprise may have inspired a satirical stage play. On 8 May 1608 work commenced under royal supervision. Miners from Cornwall and Germany were employed in the works.
Gold has been mined in Scotland for centuries. There was a short-lived gold rush in 1852 at Auchtermuchty and Kinnesswood, and another in 1869 at Baile An Or on the Kildonan burn in Helmsdale in Sutherland. There have been several attempts to run commercial mines. In the Lowther Hills, Leadhills, and Wanlockhead areas gold prospecting and the extraction of lead metal went hand in hand. From 1424, under the Royal Mines Act, until 1592, gold and silver mined in Scotland were deemed to belong to the crown. The 1592 Act vested rights for gold, silver, lead, copper, tin, and other minerals in the king's feudal tenants or other leaseholders, who would pay 10% of any profit to the crown. The Act also established a Master of Metals as a crown officer, a position held from June 1592 by Lord Menmuir. followed by Thomas Hamilton of Monkland in March 1607.
Thomas Thurland was Master of the Savoy Hospital in London and a mining entrepreneur. His family was from Nottinghamshire.
Lead ore has been mined and refined in Scotland for centuries. Lead was typically found as the ore galena. It was used as roofing material for high-status buildings, to make the pipework of the fountain at Linlithgow Palace, to glaze windows, and in the manufacture of alloys such as pewter and latten. Lead was a valuable commodity, with rights reserved to the crown, and was exported abroad. Centres included Leadhills in South Lanarkshire and nearby, Wanlockhead in Dumfries and Galloway; Beinn Chùirn near Tyndrum; Strontian; Minnigaff near Newton Stewart; Woodhead at Carsphairn; and Islay. Abandoned workings include buddle pits which were used to separate heavy lead ores. Significant and notable industrial heritage includes the Wanlockhead beam engine.
Stephen Proctor or Procter was an English courtier, a minerals and financial speculator, and Yorkshire landowner who built Fountains Hall.