Cosmetic surgery in South Korea

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A building in Busan, housing several cosmetic surgery clinics. seomyeon Xi Mian Seomyeon, Busan (5452865868).jpg
A building in Busan, housing several cosmetic surgery clinics.

Cosmetic surgery is voluntary or elective surgery for beauty enhancement. [1] The motivation for plastic surgery has been debated throughout Korean society. Holliday and Elfving-Hwang suggest that the pressure of success in work and marriage is deeply rooted in one's ability to manage their body which is influenced by beauty. [2] As companies helping with matchmaking for marriage and even job applications require a photo of the individual, Korean population inevitably feels pressure to undergo plastic surgery to achieve the "natural beauty". [3]

Contents

South Korea has emerged as a major destination for medical tourism. Over the past four years, the number of foreign patients who visited plastic surgery clinics was 190,000, with Thailand and China accounting for the largest number. [4]

According to ISAPS data as of 2021, South Korea has estimated the highest number of plastic surgery cases per capita in the world. [5]

History

The modern Korean interest in appearance dates back to the 7th century, finding its roots in physiognomy (gwansang). The concept of connecting identity and appearance became stronger during the Japanese colonial period in Korea, as Japanese rulers believed that certain facial features displayed greater intelligence and nobility. After that, plastic surgery technique brought by American doctors during the Korean War and accepted the Western notion that changing one's face would change one's destiny. [6]

Due to the 1997 Asian financial crisis, South Korea deregulated the labor market; [7] Korean citizens tried all they could to get an edge over competitors for a job position, including cosmetic surgery. [6] This still happens in the current day, as companies require a photo, height, and sometimes the family background of applicants as a part of the hiring process. [8]

Statistics

Over the past few decades, plastic surgery has become more accepted in Korea. For example, 66% of respondents in 2015 expressed that a woman can get plastic surgery for marriage, compared to 38% in 1994. [9] The proportion of women who reported that they had undergone plastic surgery also climbed from 5% in 1994 to 31% in 2015. Women consistently score higher and are more supportive about the procedures than men. According to a Statista survey in 2020 which interviewed a total of 1,500 people, plastic surgery is prevalent among young women in South Korea. Nearly 25% of women aged 19–29 have undergone plastic surgery, while men have only undergone surgery 2% of the time. This number increases to 31% of women and 4% of men among 30–39-year-olds. [10] A case study by Allure Magazine noted that in recent years, the percentage rate of males who underwent plastic surgery increased and consisted as much as 30% of cases of those who underwent the procedure. [11] The expectation of undergoing cosmetic surgery is not restricted to urban areas and has spread to rural towns, in part due to the popularity of K-pop idols such as Wonder Girls and Girls' Generation. [12]

South Korea is frequently called the "plastic surgery capital of the world". [13] [14] Cosmetic surgery in South Korea is commonplace, if not a common graduation gift. [15] South Korea's cosmetic surgery is a market leader, with South Korea taking a 25% share in the global market. [16] One in five Korean women have undergone plastic surgery, compared to just one in twenty in the United States. [17] In 2018, a total of 464,452 patients visited South Korea for cosmetic surgery, a 16.7 percent increase from 2017. [18]

Market

In the Korean surgery market, there are two providers: Hospitals and Specialty Clinics and Spas and Cosmetic Surgery Centers.[ clarification needed ] In 2021, the market was valued to 1.95 billion US dollars. [19]

Forms of cosmetic surgery

Blepharoplasty

A before and after comparison of a double eyelid surgery. Une Sud-Coreenne, avant (en haut) et apres (en bas) une blepharoplastie d'Asie de l'Est.png
A before and after comparison of a double eyelid surgery.

This form of cosmetic surgery is also known as the "double eyelid surgery". It is a surgery that reshapes the skin around the eye, resulting in a crease on the upper eyelid. The procedure is popular not just in South Korea but also other Asian countries like Taiwan and India.

The double eyelid surgery can be done in several ways, with the main difference being the form of incision. The full incision is often done to patients with excess fat and skin in the upper eyelid, a partial incision is done when there is only excess fat in the eyelid, while there is no incision used when there is no excess fat and skin. The surgery is not considered painful and it can take up to 4 weeks to fully recover. [20]

Facial contouring

Asian facial skeletal contouring surgeries, also known as V-Line surgeries, are often done to reduce the dimension or angularity of the cheekbones or the jaw in order to create a V shape. They are commonly found among young Korean pop stars and can give the face an elf- or childlike appeal. [12] K-pop groups like created a trend for the V-shaped face among young girls, as it is seen as an attractive feature.[ citation needed ]

A surgery can involve several related procedures: zygomatic reduction, V-Line surgery, mandibular contouring, and sagittal osteotomy of mandible. Zygomatic reduction involves fracturing the zygomatic arch, reshaping and re-orienting the bone so that it protrudes less to the side. During a V-Line surgery, incisions are made through the mouth. The chin is then fractured and reduced, and the jaw bone is shaved. Mandibular contouring is similar but does not involve the chin. Sagittal osteotomy reduces the width of the jaw bone. [21]

The pain following surgery ranges from mild to extreme. The jaws may be wired together for weeks, and it can take six months for the swelling to completely disappear, although it is most significant during the first 72 hours. [12] [21] A maxillofacial surgeon and former professor at Columbia University said the V-Line surgery is complex and carries risks of permanent numbness and death. [12] [22]

Rhinoplasty

Jessi is a Korean artist that has been very open about the cosmetic surgery she has received. Jessi 2017 (derived).jpg
Jessi is a Korean artist that has been very open about the cosmetic surgery she has received.

Examples of Korean celebrities that have undergone a "nose job" include Kim Hee-chul, Jessi, and Soyou. [23] A popular member from Apink Hyoyeon has undergone rhinoplasty and other procedures during her time as an idol. [24]

The surgery can be performed open and closed. The open procedure is the most popular as it gives the surgeon more visual context. It requires an incision in the columella, which often heals without any issues and leaves a minor scar that should be difficult to spot. Once the procedure is done, it takes a few weeks to heal completely. [25] In a closed surgery, all the incisions are made inside of the nose. [26]

In South Korea, rhinoplasty is the second least common surgery among ethnic Koreans. [27] The procedure is sometimes be performed in a health context as well, as restructuring the nose can also make it easier to breathe. [23]

Face whitening

Face-whitening injections have also started becoming more popular as a pale skin fits within the Korean beauty standards. [28] The active ingredients in these injections is glutathione. The procedure last 20 minutes. Some negative effects from the procedure are as following: low blood pressure, rash all over the body, and problems with the digestive system such as nausea or vomiting. [29]

Medical tourism

Medical tourism is the act of attracting foreigners to undergo surgeries. With the rise of popularity of K-drama and K-pop around the world, numerous people opted South Korea to undergo cosmetic surgeries. "South Korea's plastic surgery business is gaining popularity because of the country's quick, affordable, efficient, safe, and high-quality healthcare system." [30] In 2019, a total of 211,218 tourists visited South Korea for plastic surgery. [31]

Controversy

Ghost surgeries

A ghost surgery is a surgery in which the person who performs the operation, the "ghost doctor," is not the surgeon that was hired for and is credited with the operation. The ghost doctor substitutes the hired surgeon while the patient is unconscious from anesthesia. [32] [33]

Ghost surgeries are "rampant" in the South Korean cosmetic surgery industry. [32] [33] [34] Ghost doctors are often unlicensed and unqualified to perform the operations they are hired for, with some plastic surgeries being performed by dentists, nurses, or salespeople; one former ghost doctor reported that most substitutes were dentists. [32] The Korean Society of Plastic Surgeons estimated that there were about 100,000 victims of ghost surgery in South Korea between 2008 and 2014. About five patients died during ghost surgeries between 2014 and 2022. [33]

Ghost surgery is illegal in South Korea, but as there is often no evidence a surgery was performed by a ghost doctor, it is rarely punished in court. [33] Public backlash to ghost surgery has led to the mandating of security cameras in operating rooms in South Korea. [35] [36]

Beauty Standards

Korea is often criticised for having unrealistic beauty standards, often expecting women to be very thin to the point where their weight can become unhealthy. The "escape the corset" movement goes directly against the country's beauty standards and active promotion of beauty products and surgery. [37] The movement is intended to create body positivity and reduce the strict standards that women have to live up to in the country.

A study made by Charlotte N. Markeya and Patrick M. Markeya show there is a correlation between reality television viewing and interest in cosmetic surgery. [38]

Another study made by Young A. Kim, Duckhee Chae and Hyunlye Kim about "Factors Affecting Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Among Undergraduate Students" affirms that the rise of the beauty standards conveyed by television, internet, actors and stars of K-pop affect people's mental health by decreasing their self-esteem and increasing their anxiety. The socio-cultural message transmitted by peers reflects the high beauty standards are became the norms. [39]

A study at Miami University shows that the pressure to get the "perfect" appearance can stem from feelings of inferiority if someone sees themselves as less attractive. [3]

Let Me In was a controversial South Korean television show that is focused on doing complete make-overs, including plastic surgery. [40] Participants have to convince a panel that their appearance makes their life difficult, it even goes as far as making their parents apologise for appearance and lack of plastic surgery. Participants are presented to the audience after their make-over. The show was shut down in 2015 in a response to the amount of controversy and criticism, as the show was blamed for making plastic surgery more attractive to its viewers. [41]

Employment surgery

Employment surgery is a common occurrence in South Korea. Due to a lot of competition in the job market, appearance is considered an important factor when hiring, which pressures people into undergoing surgery to get an edge over their competitors. [42] People who are considered more appealing have statistically more chances to "have" the job than people who do not fit the beauty standards. This is well known by Koreans and can affect also the mental health of person who are looking for a job with the required qualification but not does not satisfy the beauty qualification. [43] According to a 2006 survey, 92.2% of women in South Korea expect to be discriminated based on appearance during a job interview. [44]

In 2021, a bill was proposed that take action against this culture, banning companies from asking for photos at a résumé. A survey in 2006 showed that 80% of public companies require personal information like photos. [44]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plastic surgery</span> Medical surgical specialty

Plastic surgery is a surgical specialty involving the restoration, reconstruction, or alteration of the human body. It can be divided into two main categories: reconstructive surgery and cosmetic surgery. Reconstructive surgery covers a wide range of specialties, including craniofacial surgery, hand surgery, microsurgery, and the treatment of burns. This category of surgery focuses on restoring a body part or improving its function. In contrast, cosmetic surgery focuses solely on improving the physical appearance of the body. A comprehensive definition of plastic surgery has never been established, because it has no distinct anatomical object and thus overlaps with practically all other surgical specialties. An essential feature of plastic surgery is that it involves the treatment of conditions that require or may require tissue relocation skills.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rhinoplasty</span> Surgical procedure to enhance or reconstruct a human nose

Rhinoplasty, commonly called nose job, medically called nasal reconstruction, is a plastic surgery procedure for altering and reconstructing the nose. There are two types of plastic surgery used – reconstructive surgery that restores the form and functions of the nose and cosmetic surgery that changes the appearance of the nose. Reconstructive surgery seeks to resolve nasal injuries caused by various traumas including blunt, and penetrating trauma and trauma caused by blast injury. Reconstructive surgery can also treat birth defects, breathing problems, and failed primary rhinoplasties. Rhinoplasty may remove a bump, narrow nostril width, change the angle between the nose and the mouth, or address injuries, birth defects, or other problems that affect breathing, such as a deviated nasal septum or a sinus condition. Surgery only on the septum is called a septoplasty.

Oral and maxillofacial surgery is a surgical specialty focusing on reconstructive surgery of the face, facial trauma surgery, the mouth, head and neck, and jaws, as well as facial plastic surgery including cleft lip and cleft palate surgery.

East Asian blepharoplasty, more commonly known as double eyelid surgery, is a cosmetic procedure that reshapes the skin around the eye to create a crease in an upper eyelid that naturally lacks one. Although 70-83% of East Asian women naturally have upper eyelid creases, it is estimated that 17-30% of Chinese and Japanese women lack this feature. This surgery may be performed on individuals of East Asian descent, including those from Chinese, Japanese, and Korean backgrounds. The primary goal is to enhance the eyelid's appearance, making the eyes appear larger and, according to some cultural aesthetics, more attractive due to a 'wide eyed' and expressive appearance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rhytidectomy</span> Type of cosmetic surgery

A facelift, technically known as a rhytidectomy, is a type of cosmetic surgery procedure intended to give a more youthful facial appearance. There are multiple surgical techniques and exercise routines. Surgery usually involves the removal of excess facial skin, with or without the tightening of underlying tissues, and the redraping of the skin on the patient's face and neck. Exercise routines tone underlying facial muscles without surgery. Surgical facelifts are effectively combined with eyelid surgery (blepharoplasty) and other facial procedures and are typically performed under general anesthesia or deep twilight sleep.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reconstructive surgery</span> Surgery to restore form and function

Reconstructive surgery is surgery performed to restore normal appearance and function to body parts malformed by a disease or medical condition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blepharoplasty</span> Surgical modification of the eyelids

Blepharoplasty is the plastic surgery operation for correcting defects, deformities, and disfigurations of the eyelids; and for aesthetically modifying the eye region of the face. With the excision and the removal, or the repositioning of excess tissues, such as skin and adipocyte fat, and the reinforcement of the corresponding muscle and tendon tissues, the blepharoplasty procedure resolves functional and cosmetic problems of the periorbita, which is the area from the eyebrow to the upper portion of the cheek. The procedure is more common among women, who accounted for approximately 85% of blepharoplasty procedures in 2014 in the US and 88% of such procedures in the UK.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chest reconstruction</span> Surgical procedure

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ptosis (eyelid)</span> Drooping of the upper eyelid over the eye

Ptosis, also known as blepharoptosis, is a drooping or falling of the upper eyelid. This condition is sometimes called "lazy eye", but that term normally refers to the condition amblyopia. If severe enough and left untreated, the drooping eyelid can cause other conditions, such as amblyopia or astigmatism, so it is especially important to treat the disorder in children before it can interfere with vision development.

David Ralph Millard, Jr. was a plastic surgeon who developed several techniques used in cleft lip and palate surgeries. He also popularized the double eyelid surgery or "Asian blepharoplasty" to “deorientalize” patients’ faces while stationed in South Korea during the Korean War. He was chief of the Division of Plastic Surgery at University of Miami's Miller School of Medicine for 28 years, and maintained a private practice in Miami.


Robert Kotler, M.D. FACS, born in 1942, is an American ear, nose, and throat surgeon. He has performed more than 10,000 major cosmetic procedures, with over 40 years in private practice, and was a featured surgeon in the first season of the E! cosmetic surgery series Dr. 90210.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Buccal fat extraction</span> Cosmetic plastic surgery procedure on the cheeks

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Aesthetic medicine is a branch of modern medicine that focuses on altering natural or acquired unwanted appearance through the treatment of conditions including scars, skin laxity, wrinkles, moles, liver spots, excess fat, cellulite, unwanted hair, skin discoloration, spider veins and or any unwanted externally visible appearance. Traditionally, it includes dermatology, oral and maxillofacial surgery, reconstructive surgery and plastic surgery, surgical procedures, non-surgical procedures, and a combination of both. Aesthetic medicine procedures are usually elective. There is a long history of aesthetic medicine procedures, dating back to many notable cases in the 19th century, though techniques have developed much since then.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Babak Azizzadeh</span> American facial plastic and reconstructive surgeon

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Cosmetic surgery, also referred to as aesthetic surgery, is a surgical procedure which endeavours to improve the physical aspects of one's appearance to become more aesthetically pleasing. The continuously growing field of cosmetic surgery is closely linked with plastic surgery, the difference being, cosmetic surgery is an elective surgery with the sole purpose to enhance the physical features of one's appearance. Plastic surgery is performed in order to rectify defects to reinstate normality to function and appearance. Cosmetic surgical procedures are generally performed on healthy functioning body parts, with the procedure being optional not medically necessary. The inevitable aim of cosmetic surgery is to enhance one's image, encompassing reducing the signs of aging and/or correction of a believed deviation on one's body in turn it is surrounded by controversy. Although the implementation of cosmetic surgery within Australian society is growing, the trade has struggled to find its place within the Australian culture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Korean beauty standards</span>

Korean beauty standards have become a well-known feature of Korean culture. In 2015, a global survey by the International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgeons placed South Korea in the top ten of countries who had the highest rate of cosmetic surgeries.

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Culture of cosmetic surgery is a set of attitudes and behavior regarding making changes to one's appearance via plastic surgery. World War I left thousands of soldiers with unprecedented levels of facial damage, creating a massive need for reconstructive surgery. Harold Gillies of New Zealand developed methods to restore function and structure to the faces of soldiers and these processes rapidly gained popularity. During the 1940s and 50s, personal appearance became more emphasized in the United States. As beauty standards changed, new products and techniques were developed to meet those demands.

Nasal surgery is a medical procedure designed to treat various conditions that cause nasal blockages in the upper respiratory tract, for example nasal polyps, inferior turbinate hypertrophy, and chronic rhinosinusitis. It encompasses several types of techniques, including rhinoplasty, septoplasty, sinus surgery, and turbinoplasty, each with its respective postoperative treatments. Furthermore, nasal surgery is also conducted for cosmetic purposes. While there are potential risks and complications associated, the advancement of medical instruments and enhanced surgical skills have helped mitigate them.

References

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  44. 1 2 Lee, Tae-hoon (8 June 2010). "Bill seeks to ban photo on resume". The Korea Times . Archived from the original on 20 October 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2022.
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