The physical appearances of K-pop idols, with slim bodies and pale skin, impacts Korean beauty standards.
Korean beauty standards have become a well-known feature of Korean culture. In 2015, a global survey by the International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgeons placed South Korea in the top ten of countries who had the highest rate of cosmetic surgeries.[1][2]
Korean beauty standards prioritize maintaining a youthful appearance, rather than looking matured. A combination of clear skin an even skin complexion, slim v-shaped jawline, and pronounced puffy Aegyo-Sal (fatty, bag-like, deposits under the eye. common in children; rare in adults.) contribute to the desirable youthful aesthetic and personal presentation.
Increase in influence of Korean media, such as K-pop, Korean dramas and advertisements, throughout Korea, presents this softer appearance to the public as the desirable norm. Even in men, this softer and a more androgynous appearance is preferred in both romantic interests, and shown more in media, as compared to men with traditionally masculine features.
Cultural pressure
A study from 2008 determined that 20 percent of young Korean girls have undergone cosmetic surgery. This is significantly above the average rate in other countries.[3] A recent survey from Gallup Korea in 2015 determined that approximately one-third of South Korean women between 19 and 29 have claimed to have had plastic surgery.[4]
In South Korea, there is immense societal pressure to conform to the community and societal expectations placed on the individual. This is evident in the theorization of what influences both Korean men and women to want to strive to achieve a strict beauty standard. A study by Lin and Raval from Miami University shows that the pressure for the "perfect" appearance may stem from feelings of inferiority if they perceive themselves as less attractive within their community.[5] The result from this particular study supports the previous evidence from Keong Ja Woo, who analyzed how beauty standards in Korea, in regard to one's height, weight, and facial preference, impacted their chances of employment.[6]
The pressure to uphold a standard of beauty is even felt within the job market. Companies require a photo, height, and sometimes the family background of applicants as a part of the hiring process.[7] Beauty is often seen as a means for socioeconomic success in the rapidly modernized post-war economy of South Korea, which has seen a sluggish job growth rate after its economic boom. This has left Korea with a highly skilled and educated workforce competing for a short supply of job opportunities and chances for upward social mobility. Some Koreans view investments in beauty, such as cosmetic products and medical beauty treatments, such as plastic surgery, dermatology, and cosmetic dentistry, as a means of cultural capital to get an edge over peers for social and economic advancement.[8]
The theorization of the impact of Western beauty standards for the Korean society is highly controversial in the West. Some Western authors attribute modern Korean beauty standards to Western influence, while others point out that Caucasian features are in many cases considered unattractive by Korean beauty standards, and that Korean beauty standards portray a traditional ethnic "look" that is seen in pre-colonial Korean art.[9] Some studies have reported a higher incidence of body dissatisfaction among Korean boys and girls than among boys and girls living in the United States,[10][11] while noting that these studies fail to control for the slimmer and smaller size of Koreans as compared with Westerners.[12]
In addition to this, Jung and Lee observed that there were more models that conformed to thin beauty ideals in South Korean magazines than that of U.S. magazines.[13] Higher cultural pressure to conform to thin body ideals in South Korea may be responsible for the higher rate of body dysmorphia and eating disorders among Korean men and women.[5]
Since South Korea has seen more than a twenty-fold increase in real per capita income and is currently ranked within the top twenty economies in the world with continual growth, there has been a paralleled increase in visibility for women's rights within South Korea.[14] However, with this growth in visibility and social change for women, there is an interesting observation that this change is "immediately accompanied by increases in body dissatisfaction and eating disorders".[14] This could be explained by a sociocultural theory, namely objectification theory, that asserts:
"Any movement toward gender equality that threatens the stability of the patriarchy. It is followed inevitably by a heightened emphasis on unrealistic beauty standards and increasing pressure to meet these standards. Such pressure may be effectively applied as a means to oppress women and maintain patriarchal control. As unrealistic standards such as these undermine women's self-confidence and materially shift their focus away from their individual capabilities to more generalized and superficial aspects of their physical appearance."[15]
Other cultural factors such as the hardened Confucianism in Korean society has been quoted as a prominent factor. The philosophy of Confucius highly influenced the gender roles and norms in Korea, and some of his teachings have been sustained even through modern Korea. The emphasis on gender roles, with women being submissive and men being dominant, caused a patriarchal society from these philosophical teachings which may have had an impact on the beauty standard.[11]
Women are more likely to examine and make changes to their bodies and face in order to adhere to the beauty standards projected by the objectification theory that views women as "objects".[15] This raises the observation that impractical beauty standards could be caused by highly patriarchal societies that only promote unbending gender roles which is then reflected by the influence of Confucianism in Korean history. There could be another cultural factor such as certain facial features leading to bad luck encourages the Korean individual to plastic surgery.[5]
In 2023, South Korea's cosmetic industry was valued at over five trillion South Korean won. In 2015, South Korea exported $2.64 billion of cosmetic goods,[16] $730 million more than in 2014. South Korea still continues to be the 3rd largest exporter of beauty products and cosmetic goods.[17]
Some of the most popular products used in Korean beauty are blemish balm (BB) creams, color correction (CC) creams, serums, essences, ampoules, seaweed face masks, and scrubs.[18] Korean beauty products contain ingredients not commonly found in Western products such as snail extract. In 2011, BB cream, which was previously only found in China, hit the shelves in America, and by 2014, the US market for BB cream was around $164 million.
Makeup in Korea doesn't tend to be gendered. Many more younger men are choosing to use light makeup everyday and or for special occasions, to cover up blemishes, redness, and, irritation. Male beauty standards around makeup prefer a matte look, to convey a natural, desirable image, rather than bold, bright colors, and styles The increase in utilization by male Kpop idols, and advertisements directed to a male audience has led more Korean men to apply light makeup, as compared to men in the west.
The ideal for Korean women is to have "dewy" skin, meaning smooth, hydrated, clear, resilient, and shiny.[19]Chok-Chok refers to skin that is bouncy and moist; taeng-taeng describes skin that is firm and smooth.[19] The dewy skincare routines are quite different from the Western concept of using makeup to conceal flaws. While Western makeup uses facial contouring to try and change the appearance of one's facial bone structure, Korean dewy makeup seeks to enhancing the skin's appearance, creating a "natural" look.[20]
South Korea is often called "plastic surgery capital of the world" due in part to its status as an affordable destination for Chinese, Russian and American cosmetic tourists,[21][22][23] however a large number of countries in the Western hemisphere have also been dubbed the "plastic surgery capital of the world".[24]Plastic surgery in South Korea is not as stigmatized as in the west and is even a common graduation gift.[25] The most common plastic surgery among Koreans is eye surgery and wrinkle removal surgery, whereas Caucasians in Korea tended to get their noses reduced in size, followed by eye surgery.[26]
Example of Korean double-eyelid surgery
The appeal of common cosmetic procedures among South Koreans are sometimes attributed to Western influence, however other authors reject this view and suggest that they represent the pursuit of a distinctly Korean ethnic "look".[9] V-line surgery (jaw and chin reduction) and cheekbone (zygoma) reduction surgeries are used to change the facial contour. These surgeries are especially common amongst celebrities who are often required to undergo these changes in their cheekbones, jaw, and chin with the ultimate goal being to create an oval face.[27] It has been noted that many foreigners of Western origin have sought plastic surgery in Korea to look like Korean celebrities.[28][29]
Motivation for plastic surgery has been debated throughout Korean society. Holliday and Elfving-Hwang suggest that the pressure of success in work and marriage is deeply rooted in one's ability to manage their body which is influenced by beauty.[30] As companies helping with matchmaking for marriage and even job applications require a photo of the individual, it is inevitable that the Korean population feels pressure to undergo plastic surgery to achieve the "natural beauty".[5]
South Korea has also seen an increase in medical tourism from people who seek surgeon expertise in facial bone contouring. Korean surgeons have advanced facial bone contouring with procedures like the osteotomy technique[31][32] and have published the first book on facial bone contouring surgeries.[33] There was a 17 percent increase in the sales of cosmetic surgery from 1999 to 2000, reaching almost ₩170 billion (South Korean won) which is $144 million US dollars.[34]
The group that receives the most plastic surgery in Korea is idol trainees, and there is a culture in which entertainment agencies force plastic surgery regardless of their will. As a result of hearing opinions from plastic surgeons in downtown Seoul, the answer came out, "90% of idol singers and trainees appearing on TV seem to have had plastic surgery." Won-jun Yoon, director of Migo Plastic Surgery Clinic, said, "Now, plastic surgery has become an essential course that teenagers who dream of becoming celebrities must go through before their debut. The most common surgeries they receive are facial contouring and fat removal. Director Bae Jun-seong of JK Plastic Surgery said, "For the face, there are many cases of receiving a discount on the eyes, nose, and facial contouring surgery as a set."[35]
History
David Ralph Millard, who graduated from Yale College and Harvard Medical School, had been employed by the U.S. Marine Corps as the chief plastic surgeon in South Korea.[36] Desiring a similar path to his mentor, Sir Harold Gillies, he wanted to provide reconstructive plastic surgery for wounded soldiers, children, and other civilians that were injured by the Korean War. Millard was observing ways to perform reconstructive surgeries on burn victims in order to reforming eyebrows on the patients in which he had an unusual interest to the study of the eye, the eye socket, and the eyelid fold.[36]
He wanted to modify the structure of the "oriental" eye into a more "western" look. Millard was unable to find a consenting patient until a Korean translator requested undergo the operation for eyes that had a more "round appearance", stating that the "because of the squint in his slant eyes, Americans could not tell what he was thinking and consequently did not trust him" in which Millard agreed with his sentiment.[36] Millard then found inspiration to pave the way to conduct his own research on performing double-eyelid surgery when he could not find any journals translated in English.
Although the double-eyelid surgery was already performed in small bulks in Japan, Hong Kong, and Korea, Millard's incorporation had changed the motivation and techniques for plastic surgery in Korea. Millard stated he wanted to reduce the "Asian-ness" by making a higher nose bridge by implanting more cartilage to the nose and widening the eyes by tearing the inner fold of the eye for a look of a longer eye, removed the fat in the eyelid that causes the monolid, and sutured the skin on the eyelid to create the double-eyelid fold.[36] There were many plastic surgeries of this nature performed on various Koreans during this era and before he left the country, trained numerous local doctors on his techniques.
In 2015, participants in the feminist movement Megalia began to use the word "corset" as a metonym for the restraints women place on themselves in order to conform to the expectations of a male-centered society, especially expectations about physical appearance.[37] Having to deal with societal oppression was compared to being bound up in a corset. Korean women took to social media in a backlash against unrealistic beauty standards that requires them to spend hours applying makeup and performing extensive skincare regimes, which often involve ten steps or more.[38] After the #MeToo movement, when women shared their sexual assault and harassment stories, this became known as the "break (or free) the corset" movement.[38] Some Korean women have destroyed their makeup, cut their hair, and rejected the pressures of getting surgery.[39][38][40] The purpose of the movement is to create space for Korean women to feel comfortable with themselves and not have social pressures limit their identity.[41] Critics argue that by criticizing women who still apply makeup, supporters of the movement are just imposing more constraints on women's freedom of choice.[42]
Male beauty standards
While expectations of female beauty usually outweigh male expectations, South Korea is notable for the standards placed on men. South Korea has become one of the beauty capitals of the world for male beauty. In contrast to the West, it is still a misconception that the South Korean beauty industry exclusively focuses on women. Make-up is not seen as a gendered product and Korean beauty brands commonly used male models and celebrities to advertise their products. One of the reasons for this standard is the Korean Pop music culture or K-Pop. In the Western hemisphere, the population has a different understanding when it comes to the attractiveness of males.
It is very common for Korean men to care about clear, smooth and fair skin. It is also usual to dye and style hair on a regular basis.[43] The body shape is expected to appear rather androgyne than too muscular; appearing 'boyish' at times. Men wear sharply stylish cut outfits and double eyelids are very common as a result of cosmetic surgery. Korean men often choose to get surgery to achieve a higher nose along with smaller and slender facial features.[44]
"Over the past decade South Korean men have become the world's biggest male spenders on skincare and beauty products." Between 2011 and 2017, the market grew by 44%.[45] South Koreas's cosmetics industry earns nearly $10 billion in annual sales. The industry is trying to expand its appeal to young men in their twenties. The cosmetic companies' marketing teams have also developed strategies to win new customers for their always changing product lines. Major sports events such as baseball games air advertisements for skincare due to the large attendance of potential customers making it a good commercial opportunity to do so.
In 2015, Korean cosmetics brand Innisfree released a line of warpaint for serving soldiers that contained added skincare benefits.[46]
Plastic surgery is a surgical specialty involving the restoration, reconstruction, or alteration of the human body. It can be divided into two main categories: reconstructive surgery and cosmetic surgery. Reconstructive surgery covers a wide range of specialties, including craniofacial surgery, hand surgery, microsurgery, and the treatment of burns. This category of surgery focuses on restoring a body part or improving its function. In contrast, cosmetic surgery focuses solely on improving the physical appearance of the body. A comprehensive definition of plastic surgery has never been established, because it has no distinct anatomical object and thus overlaps with practically all other surgical specialties. An essential feature of plastic surgery is that it involves the treatment of conditions that require or may require tissue relocation skills.
Cosmetics are composed of mixtures of chemical compounds derived from either natural sources or synthetically created ones. Cosmetics have various purposes, including personal and skin care. They can also be used to conceal blemishes and enhance natural features. Makeup can also add colour to a person's face, enhance a person's features or change the appearance of the face entirely to resemble a different person, creature, or object.
Human physical appearance is the outward phenotype or look of human beings.
An eyelid is a thin fold of skin that covers and protects an eye. The levator palpebrae superioris muscle retracts the eyelid, exposing the cornea to the outside, giving vision. This can be either voluntarily or involuntarily. "Palpebral" means relating to the eyelids. Its key function is to regularly spread the tears and other secretions on the eye surface to keep it moist, since the cornea must be continuously moist. They keep the eyes from drying out when asleep. Moreover, the blink reflex protects the eye from foreign bodies. A set of specialized hairs known as lashes grow from the upper and lower eyelid margins to further protect the eye from dust and debris.
East Asian blepharoplasty, more commonly known as double eyelid surgery, is a cosmetic procedure that reshapes the skin around the eye to create a crease in an upper eyelid that naturally lacks one. Although 70-83% of East Asian women naturally have upper eyelid creases, it is estimated that 17-30% of Chinese and Japanese women lack this feature. This surgery may be performed on individuals of East Asian descent, including those from Chinese, Japanese, and Korean backgrounds. The primary goal is to enhance the eyelid's appearance, making the eyes appear larger and, according to some cultural aesthetics, more attractive due to a 'wide eyed' and expressive appearance.
Chin augmentation using surgical implants alter the underlying structure of the face, intended to balance the facial features. The specific medical terms mentoplasty and genioplasty are used to refer to the reduction and addition of material to a patient's chin. This can take the form of chin height reduction or chin rounding by osteotomy, or chin augmentation using implants. Altering the facial balance is commonly performed by modifying the chin using an implant inserted through the mouth. The intent is to provide a suitable projection of the chin as well as the correct height of the chin which is in balance with the other facial features.
Cosmetic advertising is the promotion of cosmetics and beauty products by the cosmetics industry through a variety of media. The advertising campaigns are usually aimed at women wishing to improve their appearance, commonly to increase physical attractiveness and reduce the signs of ageing.
The history of cosmetics spans at least 7,000 years and is present in almost every society on earth. Cosmetic body art is argued to have been the earliest form of a ritual in human culture. The evidence for this comes in the form of utilised red mineral pigments including crayons associated with the emergence of Homo sapiens in Africa. Cosmetics are mentioned in the Old Testament—2 Kings 9:30 where Jezebel painted her eyelids—approximately 840 BC—and the book of Esther describes various beauty treatments as well.
Female Chinese beauty standards have become a well-known feature of Chinese culture. A 2018 survey conducted by the Great British Academy of Aesthetic Medicine concluded that Chinese beauty culture prioritizes an oval face shape, pointed, narrow chin, plump lips, well defined Cupid's bows, and obtuse jaw angle. The importance of feminine beauty in China has been deeply ingrained into the culture: historically, a woman's livelihood was often determined by her ability to find an eligible husband, a feat aided by fitting into the cultural ideals of beauty.
The feminine beauty ideal is a specific set of beauty standards regarding traits that are ingrained in women throughout their lives and from a young age to increase their perceived physical attractiveness. It is experienced by many women in the world, though the traits change over time and vary in country and culture.
Ethnic plastic surgery, or ethnic modification, refers to the types of plastic surgery performed frequently due to certain racial or ethnic traits, or with the intention of making one's appearance more similar or less similar to people of a particular race or ethnicity. Popular procedures which may have an ethnically motivated component are rhinoplasties and blepharoplasties.
Cosmetics have been used in Korea since antiquity. Today, cosmetics are an important industry in South Korea.
K-beauty is an umbrella term for skincare products that are derived from South Korea. The fad gained popularity worldwide, especially in East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, and the Western world, and focuses on health, hydration, and an emphasis on brightening effects.
Sexualization and sexual exploitation in K-pop refers to elements of sexualization and sexual exploitation in K-pop, which was once seen as a conservative music industry. This is in part due to 21st century globalization, with Korean entertainment and record label companies intending to market their idols abroad.
Male grooming refers to men paying attention to fashion and enhancing their own appearance. This interest has become increasingly apparent in popular culture.
Cosmetic surgery refers to the process, methods, and theories focusing on the enhancement of a person's physical appearance. In China, there are over 10 million people who have undergone cosmetic surgery, 8.5 million of them are under 30 years old. The intensifying fixation with physical beauty has escalated the demand for cosmetic surgery in recent years. The influence of Korean pop stars and other celebrities, and social media have significantly prompted young people to undergo these surgeries.
Japanese female beauty practices and ideals are a cultural set of standards in relevance to human physical appearance and aesthetics. Distinctive features of Japanese aesthetics have the following qualities: simplicity, elegance, suggestion, and symbolism. Concepts of female beauty originate from its traditional culture which has lasted for more than a century, some of which include long, straight black hair, pale white skin, and slim eyes. According to Kowner and Ogawa, the modern concept of physical attractiveness in Japan emanates from distinct, native traditions that have persisted for more than a century despite pervasive Western influence of values and ideals.
Male cosmetics include all cosmetic products marketed towards men, such as makeup, skincare products, hair care products, body care products, sun care products, perfumes, and other decorative cosmetics.
Culture of cosmetic surgery is a set of attitudes and behavior regarding making changes to one's appearance via plastic surgery. World War I left thousands of soldiers with unprecedented levels of facial damage, creating a massive need for reconstructive surgery. Harold Gillies of New Zealand developed methods to restore function and structure to the faces of soldiers and these processes rapidly gained popularity. During the 1940s and 50s, personal appearance became more emphasized in the United States. As beauty standards changed, new products and techniques were developed to meet those demands.
Cosmetic surgery is voluntary or elective surgery for beauty enhancement. The motivation for plastic surgery has been debated throughout Korean society. Holliday and Elfving-Hwang suggest that the pressure of success in work and marriage is deeply rooted in one's ability to manage their body which is influenced by beauty. As companies helping with matchmaking for marriage and even job applications require a photo of the individual, Korean population inevitably feels pressure to undergo plastic surgery to achieve the "natural beauty".
1 2 3 4 Lin, Kathy L.; Raval, Vaishali V. (2020). "Understanding Body Image and Appearance Management Behaviors Among Adult Women in South Korea Within a Sociocultural Context: A Review". International Perspectives in Psychology. 9 (2). Hogrefe Publishing Group: 96–122. doi:10.1037/ipp0000124. ISSN2157-3883. S2CID218815239.
↑ Woo, K. J. (2004). The Beauty Complex and the Plastic Surgery Industry. Korea Journal, 44, 52– 82.
1 2 Widdows, Heather (25 February 2020). Perfect Me: Beauty as an Ethical Ideal. Princeton University Press. p.92. ISBN978-0-691-19714-2. "For example, the Asian trends in facial surgery are given as examples of the westernization of global beauty. However, some reject the westernization claim and look to local influences ... Ruth Holiday and colleagues similarly argue that this is not a Western look but a distinctively "Korean look."
↑ Jung, J. (2006). "Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Appearance Self-Schema, Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Dieting Behavior Between Korean and U.S. Women". Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal. 34 (4): 350–365. doi:10.1177/1077727X06286419.
↑ Jung, Forbes & Lee 2009, p.44"Unfortunately, the available studies are difficult to interpret because most of them have one or more important limitations. First, comparison groups from other cultures have been absent from most studies. This means it is extremely difficult to identify cross-cultural differences. Second, most studies have failed to control for body size. Because body dissatisfaction is related to body size(Grogan 1999), and Korean and other East Asian groups typically have bodies that are smaller and slimmer than Western bodies (Jung and Lee 2006), controls for body size are essential."
↑ Jung, J., & Lee, Y. J. (2009). Cross-cultural Examination of Women's Fashion and Beauty Magazine Advertisements in the United States and South Korea. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 27, 274–286.
1 2 Kim, S. Y., Seo, Y. S., & Baek, K. Y. (2014). Face consciousness among South Korean women: A culture-specific extension of objectification theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61(1), 24–36. doi:10.1037/a0034433
1 2 Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x
↑ DeMicco, Frederick J.; Poorani, Ali A. (27 October 2022). Medical Travel Brand Management: Success Strategies for Hospitality Bridging Healthcare (H2H). CRC Press. pp.41–42. ISBN978-1-000-56578-2. "By some accounts, South Korea is the plastic surgery capital of the world. However, this South Korean specialty has become controversial in the last few years. In 2014, the national health ministry reports, one in four Chinese patients came for cosmetic surgery. So did 28% of Russians and 23% of Americans."
↑ "Most plastic surgery types". joongang. 15 January 2018. "It was found that the most frequent plastic surgery site for Koreans is 'eyes→wrinkles→nose→chest'." ... "Patients in Western countries such as the United States and Europe and Middle Eastern countries also increased significantly compared to the previous year. According to Banobagi Medical Group, 'rhinoplasty' was the most common, followed by 'eye surgery', 'fat transplant', 'filler botox', and 'contouring'. Western and Middle Eastern patients are said to be too smart and often go to hospitals to trim their large noses."
↑ Faktor, Steve (27 October 2011). Econovation: The Red, White, and Blue Pill for Arousing Innovation. John Wiley & Sons. p.102. ISBN978-1-118-18243-7. "Not known for attracting tourists, South Korea suddenly found that rich foreigners were flocking to Gangnam's 430 clinics to get plastic surgery to look like their favorite Korean celebrities...By 2015 Gangnam expects over 400,000 visitors"
↑ Cain, Geoffrey. "I wanted to look like a K-pop star so I went to a South Korean plastic surgery clinic". Business Insider. "South Koreans get more nip and tucks per capita every year than most anywhere else on Earth. There are endless stories here of crazed fans taking their passion too far, disfiguring their faces with self-administered cooking oil injections, or enduring garish makeovers to turn their seemingly imperfect foreign faces into perfect Korean ones."
↑ Holliday, R., & Elfving-Hwang, J. (2012). Gender, Globalization and Aesthetic Surgery in South Korea. Body and Society, 18, 58– 81.
↑ Lee, Tae Sung; Kim, Hye Young; Kim, Tak Ho; Lee, Ji Hyuck; Park, Sanghoon (March 2014). "Contouring of the Lower Face by a Novel Method of Narrowing and Lengthening Genioplasty". Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 133 (3): 274e–282e. doi:10.1097/01.prs.0000438054.21634.4a. ISSN0032-1052. PMID24572871. S2CID2679583.
1 2 3 4 Kurek, L. (2015). Eyes Wide Cut: The American Origins of Korea's Plastic Surgery Craze: South Korea's Obsession with Cosmetic Surgery can be traced back to an American Doctor, Raising Uneasy Questions about Beauty Standards. The Wilson Quarterly, 39(4).
↑ Kim, Donna Do-own (2020). "Mirroring the Misogynistic Wor(l)d: Civic Imagination and Speech Mirroring Strategy in Korea's Online Feminist Movement". In Jenkins, Henry; Peters-Lazaro, Gabriel; Shresthova, Sangita (eds.). Popular Culture and the Civic Imagination: Case Studies of Creative Social Change. New York: New York University Press. p.154.
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