Desire discrepancy

Last updated

Sexual desire discrepancy (SDD) is the difference between one's desired frequency of sexual intercourse and the actual frequency of sexual intercourse within a relationship. Among couples seeking sex therapy, problems of sexual desire are the most commonly reported dysfunctions, yet have historically been the most difficult to treat successfully. [1] Sexual satisfaction in a relationship has a direct relationship with overall relationship satisfaction and relationship well-being. [2] Sexual desire and sexual frequency do not stem from the same domains, sexual desire characterizes an underlying aspect of sexual motivation and is associated with romantic feelings while actual sexual activity and intercourse is associated with the development and advancement of a given relationship. Thus together, sexual desire and sexual frequency can successfully predict the stability of a relationship. [3] While higher individual sexual desire discrepancies among married individuals may undermine overall relationship well-being, [4] higher SDD scores for females may be beneficial for romantic relationships, because those females have high levels of passionate love and attachment to their partner. [5] Studies suggest that women with higher levels of desire relative to that of their partners' may experience fewer relationship adjustment problems than women with lower levels of desire relative to their partners'. [1] Empirical evidence has shown that sexual desire is a factor that heavily influences couple satisfaction and relationship continuity which has been one of the main reasons for the interest in this research domain of human sexuality. [6]

Contents

Heterosexual couples

Marital couples

In married couples, husbands have been found to experience higher sexual desire discrepancies than their wives. Those who individually experience higher rates of sexual desire discrepancy during their marriage exhibit lower levels of satisfaction in the relationship. This high discrepancy has also been found to impair other aspects of the relationship. For example, an increase in relationship instability, more negative communication within the relationship and an increase in conflict all result from high desire discrepancies. [7]

It has also been established that sexual desire and frequency of sex decreased as the length of marriage increased. [8] Further investigation has revealed that this attenuation occurs within the first 2 years of marriage. [9] In heterosexual couples, women’s low sexual desire is often pathologized. However, researchers propose that low desire in women partnered with men may be influenced by heteronormative structures and gender inequities. These structures result in an inequitable distribution of household and caregiving labor, which can reduce sexual desire. Additionally, heteronormativity often assigns women caregiver roles for their male partners, positioning them more as mothers or caregivers than sexual partners. Furthermore, the objectification of women emphasizes the importance of being desired over experiencing desire. [10]

Non-marital couples

High desire discrepancies affect men differently to women in a relationship. Men experience reduced sexual satisfaction while women experience reduced relationship satisfaction. [11] Other studies have found men also experience lower relationship satisfaction when desire discrepancy is high. [1] Furthermore, research by Davies, Katz and Jackson (1999) shows that of the individuals studied, approximately 25% reported believing their personal level of sexual desire to be different from that of their partner's, implying that not all couples who experience SDD label it as such. [1]

Same-sex couples

Lesbian couples

Low sexual desire discrepancies (low sexual desire and low sexual frequency) are common amongst lesbian couples, similar to heterosexual women in a relationship. [12] [13] The sexual frequency between lesbian couples are reported as less frequent in comparison to gay male, heterosexual, married and unmarried couples. [14] To support this notion, a study looked at 1,500 lesbian women who were in a relationship where 78% were initially uninvolved in sexual activities. [15] Blumstein and Schwartz reported in ‘American Couples’ that in a sample of lesbian women in a relationship, half of the lesbian sample had low levels of sexual contact and stated that they were dissatisfied with their sexuality suggesting low sexual desire, therefore low SDD. As well as this, the lesbian sample had reported high sexual desire and frequency at the beginning of their relationship and a pattern appeared with a decrease of sexual activity within long-term relationships. [14] However, this study comes with various criticisms. (see Lesbian bed death:criticisms).

Studies show that homosexual women are particularly prone to internalizing negative homophobic societal attitudes which has detrimental affects on their self-esteem and identity. [16] It has been proposed that homosexual women sometimes show a tendency of using defenses in an attempt to deny their homosexuality in a homophobic society. Lesbian women may thus manifest strong emotional connections to their partners but repress any sexual desires due to an unconscious internalization of society's homophobic attitudes which ultimately manifests itself in a reduced sexual desire and sexual intercourse frequency. [16]

In same-sex relationships for women, those with low sexual desire discrepancies mean that women experience low sexual activity and low satisfaction for their sexual relationship. Although, at early stages of their relationship, it is common to find high relationship satisfaction and no issues with low desire discrepancy, meaning that a good sexual satisfaction should exist. [17] As well as lesbian women commonly reporting low sexual desire in their relationship, they also report low arousal, more issues with lubrication, [18] low sexual satisfaction and low sexual frequency as the relationship length increases. [19] [20] However, research suggests that given the fact that lesbian couples in a relationship are seen to have lower sexual activity, they are likely to be satisfied with their sexual frequency similar to heterosexual women in their relationship [21] highlighting the fact that low desire discrepancies may not necessarily be an issue for women.

An explanation for low desire discrepancies for lesbian couples can be explained by the “lesbian bed death” myth, which argues that sexual activity will significantly reduce in same-sex relationships as the length of the relationship increases, which supports the idea that lesbian couples experience high SDD at early stages in their relationships compared to later on. [14] [19] [20] [22] Another explanation for SDD in lesbian couples could be that women are more "sensual rather than sexual" and so are less likely to participate in overtly sexual activities. [23]

Treatment

It has been proposed that among lesbian couples, SDD or Inhibited Sexual Desire (ISD) masks other underlying emotions, namely anger. [16] Thus, exercises targeting underlying anger such as creating lists of "grievances" and encouraging the couple to pretend argue during a treatment session can be used to address the issues of underlying feelings of anger in an attempt to alleviate sexual dysfunction. [16]

When the believed cause for sexual desire discrepancy is believed to be a form of internalized homophobia, it is recommended to begin a treatment session with a questionnaire inquiring about the individuals' feelings towards being homosexual ("How do you feel about being lesbian?", "Have you ever felt suicidal as a result of your homosexuality?", "In what way do you think homosexual people are different from heterosexual people?"). [16] The following suggested treatment is referrals to lesbian social and education groups for an exposure to positive homosexual role models. [16]

Gay couples

To date, there is only a limited hand of research on gay couples sexual desire and sexual frequency.

Gay males' desire for a sexual partner stems from a male's physical attractiveness and features and signs of youth. They also favour sexual activities as the fundamental component of a gay relationship. [24] Research by Blumstein and Schwartz depicts that gay men had higher levels of sexual frequencies in comparison to lesbian women throughout all stages of their relationship. [25]

Given that there is a lack of research on sexual desire amongst homosexual male couples, it is difficult to make definitive assumptions. However, there is research on sexual satisfaction amongst gay couples. Sexual satisfaction and sexual frequency are correlated amongst gay couples. A study showed that most gay couples were sexually satisfied with their partner, with 83% of men reporting "satisfied" and 7% "very satisfied". [26] Amongst young gay male couples in (average length was 15 months), the median rating for sexual satisfaction on a 7-point scale was 5.8 [27] and Black gay male couples reported 5.5 on the 7 point scale. [28] As well as this, males have higher testosterone levels in comparison to females. [29] Testosterone is able to fuel sex drive amongst men and women. Gay couples, therefore together obtain more testosterone thus, ultimately could be a suggestion as to why gay couples have more sexual encounters than lesbian and heterosexual couples. [30] Thus, suggesting that gay couples desire discrepancy involves high sexual desire and high sexual frequency (however, research is needed to confirm this). Despite such reports, literature states that gay men can vary between sexual desire and sexual frequencies, [31] conveying that gay male couples may not always obtain high sexual desires and high sexual frequencies. Even so, sexual frequency amongst gay couples can also reduce over time, similar to lesbian couples and heterosexual couples. [32] [33] This conveys that currently, there is no definitive conclusion on desire discrepancy amongst gay couples. However, when gay men are clinically diagnosed with Male Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder (see Desire Discrepancy Disorders below), clinicians take self-inflicted homophobia, interpersonal issues, attitude, lack of appropriate sex education and early life experience trauma into account as possible predisposition factors for the onset of the disorder. [34]

Treatment

Re-labeling internal cues is one path of SDD treatment in gay couples. Zilbergeld and Ellison (1980) proposed that sometime when an individual believes they feel a desire for sexual intercourse, what they actually feel is a desire for interpersonal closeness and reassurance. In such cases, treatment focuses on teaching individuals how to differentiate desires for closeness from desires for sexual intercourse and express them in a more appropriate manner. [35]

Sometimes, desire discrepancy may arise when partner A feels repeatedly rejected after their attempts at initiating sex. This may be because partner B is simply not interested or not in the mood but may also be because partner B just happens to be more passive in nature and thus relies on partner A to do the initiating. In such cases, it is suggested that feelings of both partners should be discussed and their patterns of initiating and rejecting explored. [35]

Desire discrepancy disorders

In one of the previous editions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-4), a particularly low degree of sexual desire would have been the main diagnostic criteria for hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD). [1] However, since the release of the DSM-5 in 2013, the disorder has been redefined and distinguished by gender differences being female sexual interest/arousal disorder and male hypoactive sexual desire disorder.

Research has found for both men and women suffering from low sexual desire on a clinical level, significantly lower levels of sexual satisfaction as well as lower levels of overall relationship adjustment are reported. [36] Due to its adverse effects on an individual's sexual satisfaction, it has been shown to negatively affect a relationship overall. [1]

Female Sexual Interest/Arousal Disorder (FSIAD)

According to the DSM-5, females who have experienced a lack of sexual interest/arousal for a period of at least 6 months can be diagnosed with FSIAD. This condition is specified by a lessened desire for, and pleasure from, sexual activity in the absence of other non-sexual mental disorders, medical conditions or relationship distress (e.g. domestic violence). It is also characteristic for the individual to experience clinical distress as a result of the condition which can be further classified as either mild, moderate or severe distress. [34]

The DSM-5 notes that low desire discrepancy, whereby a woman has a lower desire for sex than her partner, is not sufficient for the diagnosis of FSIAD but rather a reduction or absence in:

The disorder can be further subdivided as either:

It is associated with dyspareunia, mood disorders, problems orgasming and dysfunctional relationships. The DSM also states that women who experience FSIAD may also hold unconventional expectations of what a 'normal' level of sexual interest is and a lack of knowledge of sexuality. [34]

Risk factors

Problems with relationships and social development history (e.g. relationship with caregiver or childhood stressors) and a history with mental disorders have been shown to be influencing factors. Certain medical conditions such as diabetes mellitus and thyroid dysfunction are clinically known to predispose women to FSIAD. [34]

Assessment tool

The Sexual Interest and Desire Inventory–Female (SIDI-F) [37] was created as a tool for clinicians to assess FSIAD in female patients. It is a 13 item scale is reportedly holds high internal consistency and high internal validity. It is the most credible measurement tool to date and is the most specified tool for assessing FSIAD (formerly known and referred to HSDD in women in the original paper) [37]

Male Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder (MHSDD)

The DSM 5 has characterised the diagnostic features of MHSDD as males experiencing deficient or no erotic fantasies and desire for sexual activity for a period of at least 6 months. The level of deficiency in patients is determined by clinicians who take factors such as age and socio-cultural environment of the individual into account which may affect the individual's sexual functioning. The manifestation of personal distress due to the disorder in the absence of non-sexual disorders, significant relationship stress, other forms of stress and other medical conditions distinguishes MHSDD. As with FSIAD, it can also be subdivided into the subtypes: lifelong, acquired, generalised, situational and distress severity can be classified as either: mild, moderate or severe. [34]

Aspects that differentiate MHSDD from FSIAD include associative features such as erectile or ejaculatory problems and a particularly low sex desire manifested in a lack of sex initiation which is usually led by the male. [34]

Risk factors

Mood symptoms of anxiety are seemingly strong indicators of low desire in men. Approximately half of the men who have experienced psychiatric symptoms in the past are more likely to experience a significant loss in sexual desire relative to those without this history (15%). The use of alcohol may be a resultant outcome of this disorder. Hyperprolactinemia (a disorder of the endocrine system) and hypogonadism has also been associated with affecting men's sexual desire. [34]

Prevalence

This disorder is more prevalent in older men aged between 66 and 74 years old (41%) and fewer young men aged between 18 and 24 (6%). Overall, however, this condition only affects a small proportion of the male population (1.8%) for men aged between 16 and 44. Prevalence also varies cross culturally with higher rates experienced in men from Southeast Asia (28%) compared to Northern European men (12.5%). [34]

Desire discrepancy and gender

Gender differences

Gender differences exist in the frequency of experiencing sexual desire, with men showing a higher frequency than women [34] in all stages of relationships. [38] [39] Furthermore, there are gender differences in the causes attributed to sexual desire. Men are more likely to consider their sexual desire to stem from erotic environmental factors whereas women are more likely to view interpersonal factors and intimacy as playing a greater role in their sexual desire. [40] Men are known to desire the same frequency of sexual intercourse in their current relationship and this is persistent one year later. However women have low sexual desires as the relationship length continues. [41] [42]

Between both men and women, it has been found that vaginal sex, kissing and sexually stimulating caressing have been positively associated with no discrepancy between desired and actual frequency of sexual intercourse (otherwise referred to as sexual satisfaction). [43]

Reasons for gender differences

Women's sexual desire is seen to be much weaker than men's, [44] [45] with sexual urges portraying to be less strong than men's sexual urges. [46] Reasons for women's low sexual desire may be due to the understanding that sexual intercourse leads to pregnancy. [47] [48] Engaging in sexual intercourse requires a woman to invest 9 months in pregnancy, whereas a male's investment is based solely on how much time he wishes to commit to the partner. Thus, there are differential costs to engage in sexual activity which can affect a woman's sexual desire.

Another reason why women are more likely to have low sexual desire and less sexual activity compared to men may be because when enduring in copulation with a male, women's experience of achieving an orgasm is low. [49] Therefore, a females gratification for sexual intercourse may be lower than a males, where a male is able to enjoy sex consistently compared to a female, signifying why males sexual desire is usually higher. [50]

Another reason for this difference may be due to differences in levels of testosterone between men and women. Males possess significantly higher levels of testosterone levels in comparison to females. [51] [52] Studies have shown the importance of testosterone levels and its effect on sexual desire. For example, female-to-male transgender were administered with testosterone and reportedly experienced higher levels of sexual arousal and desire. The opposite occurred for male-to-female transgender people who received androgen deprivation (antiandrogens), who reportedly experienced a decrease in sexual desire. [53] Even so, a study looked at women who had their ovaries removed. The females received high doses of testosterone as a treatment therapy. There were increased levels of sexual motivation, sexual fantasies, masturbation, as well as reports of increased sexual intercourse with the testosterone treatment. [54]

A consistent finding across culture, religions, relationship status and sexual orientations is that men tend to experience higher sexual desire discrepancy than women. [55] Men value giving and receiving sex orally more than women [56] and men report higher rates of intercourse than women do. [57] Therefore, due to the higher value placed on sexual acts and the greater desired frequency of sex in men may be another contributing reason as to why their sexual desire discrepancy is higher than women's overall.

Looking at the evolutionary perspective, the evolutionary theory depicts that partners sexual desire are usually deemed to be high during the start of the relationship. This high sexual drive can instigate individuals to become closely connected to one another. This sexual desire is ultimately reduced throughout the course of the relationship in order to focus on producing children. [58] Women ultimately may incur in decreases of sexual desire once they feel they have achieved a connection with their partner. However, with men this is not the case and will continually wish to participate in sexual activity. [58] But, men can experience decreases in sexual desires but due to the expectations by women of male sexual principles, it may not be reasonable for a man to confess to this matter as they should invariably possess high sexual desires. [59]

An important point by McCarthy and McDonald highlighted that there are variations in men's sex drive signifying that solid conclusions should not be made. [60] As well as this, both males and females have reported in engaging in sexual activities with the low sexual desire levels therefore highlighting that sexual desire and sexual behaviour are not always intertwined. [61]

Age

Age is an important factor in understanding human sexuality. [62] From adolescence, to adults, to old age, an individual experiences changes in sexual desires and sexual frequencies. This is predominantly due to biological changes, such as testosterone levels [63] and environmental factors, such as cultural influences. [64]

To date, there is little research on SDD amongst adolescents.

Old age

Sexual desire discrepancy (SDD) declines from adolescence into older age, where sexual desire and sexual frequency both decrease. [65] [66] [67] Data suggests that female sexual desire is not affected by age, [68] however, the majority of data shows that sexual desire is affected by age and decreases as age increases. [69] [70] For older women, sexual desire can be determined by one's relationship context, i.e. whether she has a partner or not, but a man's sexual desire is not determined by this. [71] With men between the ages 40 and 70 years old, sexual desire, sexual thoughts and sexual dreams gradually decline with age. [72] However, Diokono and researchers showed that almost 74% of married men above the age of 60 were sexually active, [73] and 63% of men aged between 80 and 102 years were also sexually active. [74]

There are several reasons for the changes in sexual desire discrepancies, that is low sexual desire and low sexual frequencies. From a biological perspective, as an individual ages, sex hormones change. [75] For men, levels of testosterone reduce with age [63] and by the time a man is 80, testosterone levels are likely to be one sixth of a young man. [76] However, testosterone level has not been regarded to correlate with sexual drive/desire, but bioavailable testosterone levels were correlated with sexual desire and erectile functions (total testosterone level is the sum of bioavailable testosterone and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG)). [77] In women ovaries create 95% of estradiol (a sex hormone), but during menopause estradiol is terminated by the ovaries. [78] This means estrogen levels decline as a woman becomes older, which creates changes to a woman's hormone levels and can ultimately reduce vaginal lubrication. [79] This signifies that a reduction in the frequency of sexual intercourse among older women may be because sexual intercourse can become uncomfortable.

Other factors for low SDD in older individuals may be illness. The effects on sexual ability and partaking in sexual intercourse can be influenced by illnesses such as arthritis, cardiovascular disease and diabetes, where these are co-morbid with age. [63] [80]

Attitudes towards an individual's self and towards their sexual partner can too affect sexual behaviour and sexual desire. [81] A negative view of sex in older men and women are common attitudes held. [82] With regards to "attitudes" in culture, sex appeal factors in America tend to be placed on youthful appearances such as smooth clear skin, rather than aged skin. [64] There is also a stereotype that older people are physically unattractive, unable to achieve sexual arousal and have a lack of sexual interest. [83] Another cultural attitude is that sexual acts amongst older women who are post-menopausal are deemed to be inappropriate due to the fact that sexual intercourse is for reproduction and women can no longer reproduce therefore they should not be sexually active. [84]

Theoretical considerations

Given the subjective nature of human sexuality, it is important that the findings from the various studies within this field are taken tentatively. The most prevalent limitation to most of the research conducted on desire discrepancy comes from the low diversity samples. Most research in this domain, and Psychology generally, tends to be conducted on university students and the samples also remain unrepresentative. [85]

Further limitations can be found in the definitions used to define sexual desire which can be misconstrued for sexual arousal which then affects the psychometric testing taking place. [86] Different definitions of the same concepts can lead to contradictory findings of a given study with studies of the past and can thereby lead to circular, as opposed to progressive, debates in the literature.

Although research has been able to establish that throughout the duration of a relationship, there is a decrease in sexual desire [87] but increase in intimacy [88] there has been a lack of research investigating these specific two factors.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human sexual activity</span> Manner in which humans engage sexually

Human sexual activity, human sexual practice or human sexual behaviour is the manner in which humans experience and express their sexuality. People engage in a variety of sexual acts, ranging from activities done alone to acts with another person in varying patterns of frequency, for a wide variety of reasons. Sexual activity usually results in sexual arousal and physiological changes in the aroused person, some of which are pronounced while others are more subtle. Sexual activity may also include conduct and activities which are intended to arouse the sexual interest of another or enhance the sex life of another, such as strategies to find or attract partners, or personal interactions between individuals. Sexual activity may follow sexual arousal.

In psychology, libido is psychic drive or energy, usually conceived of as sexual in nature, but sometimes conceived of as including other forms of desire. The term libido was originally developed by Sigmund Freud, the pioneering originator of psychoanalysis. With direct reference to Plato's Eros, the term initially referred only to specific sexual desire, later expanded to the concept of a universal psychic energy that drives all instincts and whose great reservoir is the id. The libido - in its abstract core differentiated partly according to its synthesising, partly to its analytical aspect called life- and death-drive - thus becomes the source of all natural forms of expression: the behaviour of sexuality as well as striving for social commitment, skin pleasure, food, knowledge and victory in the areas of species- and self-preservation.

Orgasm or sexual climax is the sudden release of accumulated sexual excitement during the sexual response cycle, characterized by intense sexual pleasure resulting in rhythmic, involuntary muscular contractions in the pelvic region. Orgasms are controlled by the involuntary or autonomic nervous system and experienced by both males and females; the body's response includes muscular spasms, a general euphoric sensation, and, frequently, body movements and vocalizations. The period after orgasm is typically a relaxing experience, after the release of the neurohormones oxytocin and prolactin, as well as endorphins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual desire</span> Psychological feature arousing organisms to physical pleasure and reproduction

Sexual desire is an emotion and motivational state characterized by an interest in sexual objects or activities, or by a drive to seek out sexual objects or to engage in sexual activities. It is an aspect of sexuality, which varies significantly from one person to another and also fluctuates depending on circumstances.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homosexuality and psychology</span> Homosexuality as studied by the field of psychology

The field of psychology has extensively studied homosexuality as a human sexual orientation. The American Psychiatric Association listed homosexuality in the DSM-I in 1952 as a "sociopathic personality disturbance," but that classification came under scrutiny in research funded by the National Institute of Mental Health. That research and subsequent studies consistently failed to produce any empirical or scientific basis for regarding homosexuality as anything other than a natural and normal sexual orientation that is a healthy and positive expression of human sexuality. As a result of this scientific research, the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from the DSM-II in 1973. Upon a thorough review of the scientific data, the American Psychological Association followed in 1975 and also called on all mental health professionals to take the lead in "removing the stigma of mental illness that has long been associated" with homosexuality. In 1993, the National Association of Social Workers adopted the same position as the American Psychiatric Association and the American Psychological Association, in recognition of scientific evidence. The World Health Organization, which listed homosexuality in the ICD-9 in 1977, removed homosexuality from the ICD-10 which was endorsed by the 43rd World Health Assembly on 17 May 1990.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual fantasy</span> Class of mental image or pattern of thought

A sexual fantasy or erotic fantasy is an autoerotic mental image or pattern of thought that stirs a person's sexuality and can create or enhance sexual arousal. A sexual fantasy can be created by the person's imagination or memory, and may be triggered autonomously or by external stimulation such as erotic literature or pornography, a physical object, or sexual attraction to another person. Anything that may give rise to sexual arousal may also produce a sexual fantasy, and sexual arousal may in turn give rise to fantasies.

Hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD), hyposexuality, or inhibited sexual desire (ISD) is sometimes considered a sexual dysfunction, and is characterized as a lack or absence of sexual fantasies and desire for sexual activity, as judged by a clinician. For this to be regarded as a disorder, it must cause marked distress or interpersonal difficulties and not be better accounted for by another mental disorder, a drug, or some other medical condition. A person with ISD will not start, or respond to their partner's desire for, sexual activity. HSDD affects approximately 10% of all pre-menopausal women in the United States, or about 6 million women, 1.5% of men and an unstudied amount of gender non-conforming people.

Sexual dysfunction is difficulty experienced by an individual or partners during any stage of normal sexual activity, including physical pleasure, desire, preference, arousal, or orgasm. The World Health Organization defines sexual dysfunction as a "person's inability to participate in a sexual relationship as they would wish". This definition is broad and is subject to many interpretations. A diagnosis of sexual dysfunction under the DSM-5 requires a person to feel extreme distress and interpersonal strain for a minimum of six months. Sexual dysfunction can have a profound impact on an individual's perceived quality of sexual life. The term sexual disorder may not only refer to physical sexual dysfunction, but to paraphilias as well; this is sometimes termed disorder of sexual preference.

In social philosophy, objectification is the act of treating a person as an object or a thing. It is part of dehumanization, the act of disavowing the humanity of others. Sexual objectification, the act of treating a person as a mere object of sexual desire, is a subset of objectification, as is self-objectification, the objectification of one's self. In Marxism, the objectification of social relationships is discussed as "reification".

Sexual medicine or psychosexual medicine as defined by Masters and Johnsons in their classic Textbook of Sexual Medicine, is "that branch of medicine that focuses on the evaluation and treatment of sexual disorders, which have a high prevalence rate." Examples of disorders treated with sexual medicine are erectile dysfunction, hypogonadism, and prostate cancer. Sexual medicine often uses a multidisciplinary approach involving physicians, mental health professionals, social workers, and sex therapists. Sexual medicine physicians often approach treatment with medicine and surgery, while sex therapists often focus on behavioral treatments.

Female sexual arousal disorder (FSAD) is a disorder characterized by a persistent or recurrent inability to attain sexual arousal or to maintain arousal until the completion of a sexual activity. The diagnosis can also refer to an inadequate lubrication-swelling response normally present during arousal and sexual activity. The condition should be distinguished from a general loss of interest in sexual activity and from other sexual dysfunctions, such as the orgasmic disorder (anorgasmia) and hypoactive sexual desire disorder, which is characterized as a lack or absence of sexual fantasies and desire for sexual activity for some period of time.

Lesbian bed death is the concept that lesbian couples in committed relationships have less sex than any other type of couple the longer the relationship lasts, and generally experience less sexual intimacy as a consequence. It may also be defined as a drop-off in sexual activity that occurs two years into a long-term lesbian relationship.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transgender sexuality</span> Sexuality of transgender people

Sexuality in transgender individuals encompasses all the issues of sexuality of other groups, including establishing a sexual identity, learning to deal with one's sexual needs, and finding a partner, but may be complicated by issues of gender dysphoria, side effects of surgery, physiological and emotional effects of hormone replacement therapy, psychological aspects of expressing sexuality after medical transition, or social aspects of expressing their gender.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexless marriage</span> Marital union with little or no sexual activity between the spouses

Sexless marriage or platonic marriage is a marital union that occurs between spouses in which there is little or no sexual activity involved in their relationship. Taking into account what is defined as any form of sexual activities by the respective partners. The most common cause of a decline in sexual frequency is aging, followed by marital unhappiness. Having children, sexual boredom, busy work schedules, and spousal infidelity are all factors that can lead to a sexless marriage. Marriage in some cultures culminates in a sexless union for cultural, religious, or political reasons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual practices between women</span> Sexual activity between women

Sexual activities involving women who have sex with women (WSW), regardless of their sexual orientation or sexual identity, can include oral sex, manual sex, or tribadism. Sex toys may be used.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of pornography</span> Influence of pornography on an individual and their intimate relationships

Pornography has been defined as any material in varying forms, including texts, video, photos or audio that is consumed for sexual satisfaction and arousal of an individual or partnership. The effects of pornography on individuals or their intimate relationships have been a subject of research.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual arousal</span> Physiological and psychological changes in preparation for sexual intercourse

Sexual arousal describes the physiological and psychological responses in preparation for sexual intercourse or when exposed to sexual stimuli. A number of physiological responses occur in the body and mind as preparation for sexual intercourse, and continue during intercourse. Male arousal will lead to an erection, and in female arousal, the body's response is engorged sexual tissues such as nipples, clitoris, vaginal walls, and vaginal lubrication.

Sexual motivation is influenced by hormones such as testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, oxytocin, and vasopressin. In most mammalian species, sex hormones control the ability and motivation to engage in sexual behaviours.

Erotic plasticity is the degree to which one's sex drive can be changed by cultural or social factors. Someone has "high erotic plasticity" when their sex drives can be affected by situational, social and cultural influences, whereas someone with "low erotic plasticity" has a sex drive that is relatively rigid and unsusceptible to change. Since social psychologist Roy Baumeister coined the term in 2000, only two studies directly assessing erotic plasticity have been completed as of 2010.

The orgasm gap or pleasure gap is the disparity in sexual satisfaction—specifically the unequal frequency in achieving orgasm during sexual encounters—between heterosexual men and women. Across every demographic that has been studied, women report the lowest frequency of reaching orgasm during sexual encounters with men. Researchers believe that multiple causes contribute to the orgasm gap. Orgasm gap researcher Laurie Mintz argues that the primary reason for this form of gender inequality is due to "our cultural ignorance of the clitoris" and that it is commonplace to "mislabel women's genitals by the one part that gives men, but not women, reliable orgasms."

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Davies, S.; Katz, J.; Jackson, J. L. (1999). "Sexual desire discrepancies: Effects on sexual and relationship satisfaction in heterosexual dating couples". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 28 (6): 553–567. doi:10.1023/A:1018721417683. PMID   10650441. S2CID   35621190.
  2. ↑ Byers, E. S. (2005). "Relationship satisfaction and sexual satisfaction: A longitudinal study of individuals in long-term relationships". Journal of Sex Research. 42 (2): 113–118. doi:10.1080/00224490509552264. PMID   16123841. S2CID   11181034.
  3. ↑ Regan, P. C. (2000). "The role of sexual desire and sexual activity in dating relationships". Social Behavior and Personality. 28 (1): 51–59. doi:10.2224/sbp.2000.28.1.51.
  4. ↑ Willoughby, Brian J.; Farero, Adam M.; Busby, Dean M. (April 2014). "Exploring the Effects of Sexual Desire Discrepancy Among Married Couples". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 43 (3): 551–562. doi:10.1007/s10508-013-0181-2. PMID   24045904. S2CID   26878667.
  5. ↑ Willoughby, Brian J; Vitas, Jennifer (Apr 2012). "Sexual Desire Discrepancy: The Effect of Individual Differences in Desired and Actual Sexual Frequency on Dating Couples". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 41 (2): 477–86. doi:10.1007/s10508-011-9766-9. PMID   21573707. S2CID   28248715.
  6. ↑ Hinchliff, S.; Gott, M. (2004). "Intimacy, commitment, and adaptation: Sexual relationships within long-term marriages". Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 21 (5): 595–609. doi:10.1177/0265407504045889. S2CID   146385573.
  7. ↑ Willoughby, B. J.; Farero, A. M.; Busby, D. M. (2014). "Exploring the effects of sexual desire discrepancy among married couples". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 43 (3): 551–562. doi:10.1007/s10508-013-0181-2. PMID   24045904. S2CID   26878667.
  8. ↑ Christopher, F. S.; Sprecher, S. (2000). "Sexuality in marriage, dating, and other relationships: A decade review". Journal of Marriage & Family. 62 (4): 999–1017. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00999.x.
  9. ↑ Huston, T. L.; Vangelisti, A. L. (1991). "Socioemotional behavior and satisfaction in marital relationships: A longitudinal study". Journal of Personality & Social Psychology. 61 (5): 721–733. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.61.5.721. PMID   1753328.
  10. ↑ Van Anders, Sari M.; Herbenick, Debby; Brotto, Lori A.; Harris, Emily A.; Chadwick, Sara B. (May 21, 2020). "The Heteronormativity Theory of Low Sexual Desire in Women Partnered with Men". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 51: 391–415. doi:10.1007/s10508-021-02100-x. PMC   8382213 .
  11. ↑ Mark, K. P.; Murray, S. H. (2012). "Gender differences in desire discrepancy as a predictor of sexual and relationship satisfaction in a college sample of heterosexual romantic relationships". Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy. 38 (2): 198–215. doi:10.1080/0092623x.2011.606877. PMID   22390532. S2CID   25132114.
  12. ↑ Nichols, M. (1995) Sexual desire disorder in a lesbian couple: the intersection of therapy and politics. In R. Rosen & S. Leiblum (Eds.) Case studies in sex therapy (pp. 161-175). New York: Guilford Press
  13. ↑ Loulan, J. (1987) Lesbian passion. San Francisco: Spinsters Ink.
  14. 1 2 3 Schwartz, Philip Blumstein & Pepper (1983). American couples : money, work, sex (1st ed.). New York: Morrow. ISBN   978-0-688-03772-7.
  15. ↑ Loulan, I (1988). "Research on the sex practices of 1566 lesbians and the clinical applications". Women & Therapy. 7 (2–3): 221–234. doi:10.1300/j015v07n02_18.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Nichols, M (1983). "The treatment of inhibited sexual desire (ISD) in lesbian couples". Women & Therapy. 1 (4): 49–66. doi:10.1300/j015v01n04_07.
  17. ↑ Bridges, Sara K.; Horne, Sharon G. (January 2007). "Sexual Satisfaction and Desire Discrepancy in Same Sex Women's Relationships". Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. 33 (1): 41–53. doi:10.1080/00926230600998466. PMID   17162487. S2CID   34364735.
  18. ↑ Tracy, J. Kathleen; Junginger, John (May 2007). "Correlates of Lesbian Sexual Functioning". Journal of Women's Health. 16 (4): 499–509. doi:10.1089/jwh.2006.0308. PMID   17521253.
  19. 1 2 Bridges, S.K.; Horne, S.G. (2007). "Sexual satisfaction and desire discrepancy in same sex women's relationships". Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. 33 (1): 41–53. doi:10.1080/00926230600998466. PMID   17162487. S2CID   34364735.
  20. 1 2 Loulan, J (1988). "Research on the sex practices of 1566 lesbians and the clinical applications". Women & Therapy. 7 (2–3): 221–234. doi:10.1300/j015v07n02_18.
  21. ↑ Huribert, D. F; Apt, C. (1993). "Female sexuality: A comparative study between women in homosexual and heterosexual relationships". Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy. 19 (4): 315–327. doi:10.1080/00926239308404375. PMID   8308918.
  22. ↑ Iasenza, S (2002). "Beyond 'lesbian bed death': the passion and play in lesbian relationships". Journal of Lesbian Studies. 6 (1): 111–120. doi:10.1300/j155v06n01_10. PMID   24803053. S2CID   46370548.
  23. ↑ Nichols, M (2004). "Lesbian sexuality/female sexuality: Rethinking "lesbian bed death". Sexual and Relationship Therapy. 19 (4): 363–371. doi:10.1080/14681990412331298036. S2CID   143879852.
  24. ↑ Symons, D. (1979). The evolution of human sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press.
  25. ↑ Schwartz, Philip Blumstein & Pepper (1983). American couples : money, work, sex (1st ed.). New York: Morrow. ISBN   978-0-688-03772-7.
  26. ↑ McWhirter, D. P., & Mattison, A. M. (1984). The male couple. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Prentice-Hall.
  27. ↑ Peplau, L. A.; Cochran, S. D. (1981). "Value orientations in the intimate relationships of gay men". Journal of Homosexuality. 6 (3): 1–19. doi:10.1300/j082v06n03_01. PMID   7341663.
  28. ↑ Peplau, L. A., Cochran, S. D., & Mays, V. M. (1997). A national survey of the intimate relationships of African-American lesbians and gays: A look at commitment, satisfaction, sexual behavior, and HIV disease. In B. Greene (Ed.), Ethnic and cultural diversity among lesbians and gay men (pp. 11–38). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  29. ↑ Torjesen, P. A. (1 March 2004). "Serum Testosterone in Women as Measured by an Automated Immunoassay and a RIA * Dr. Boudou responds for the authors of the article cited above". Clinical Chemistry. 50 (3): 678–679. doi: 10.1373/clinchem.2003.027565 . PMID   14981046.
  30. ↑ Gotta, G.; Green; Rothblum, E.; Solomon, S.; Balsam, K.; Schwartz, P. (2011). "Heterosexual, lesbian, and gay male relationships: A comparison of couples in 1975 and 2000". Family Process. 50 (3): 353–376. doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.2011.01365.x. PMID   21884075.
  31. ↑ Sanderson, T. (1994). A-Z of gay sex. London: Other Way Press
  32. ↑ Bryant, A. S.; Demian (1994). "Relationship characteristics of American gay and lesbian couples: Findings from a national survey". Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services. 1 (2): 101–117. doi:10.1300/j041v01n02_06.
  33. ↑ Deenen, A. A.; Gijs, L.; van Naerssen, A. X. (1994). "Intimacy and sexuality in gay male couples". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 23 (4): 421–431. doi:10.1007/bf01541407. PMID   7993183. S2CID   26626373.
  34. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publications.
  35. 1 2 Reece, R (1987). "Causes and treatments of sexual desire discrepancies in male couples". Journal of Homosexuality. 14 (1–2): 157–172. doi:10.1300/j082v14n01_12. PMID   3655339.
  36. ↑ Trudel, G.; Landry, L.; Larose, Y. (1997). "Low sexual desire: The role of anxiety depression, and marital adjustment". Sexual and Marital Therapy. 12: 95–99. doi:10.1080/02674659708408204.
  37. 1 2 Clayton, A. H.; Segraves, R. T.; Leiblum, S.; Basson, R.; Pyke, R.; Cotton, D.; Wunderlich, G. R. (2006). "Reliability and validity of the Sexual Interest and desire Inventory–Female (SIDI-F), a scale designed to measure severity of female hypoactive sexual desire disorder". Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. 32 (2): 115–135. doi:10.1080/00926230500442300. PMID   16418104. S2CID   44617645.
  38. ↑ Beck, J. G.; Bozman, A. W.; Qualtrough, T. (1991). "The experience of sexual desire: Psychological correlates in a college sample". The Journal of Sex Research. 28 (3): 443–456. doi:10.1080/00224499109551618.
  39. ↑ Baumeister, R. F. (2004). "Gender and erotic plasticity: Sociocultural influences on the sex drive". Sexual and Relationship Therapy. 19 (2): 133–139. doi:10.1080/14681990410001691343. S2CID   145630252.
  40. ↑ Regan, P. C.; Berscheid, E. (1996). "Beliefs about the state, goals, and objects of sexual desire". Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. 22 (2): 110–120. doi:10.1080/00926239608404915. PMID   8743623.
  41. ↑ Klusmann, D (2002). "Sexual motivation and duration of partnership". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 31 (3): 275–287. doi:10.1023/a:1015205020769. PMID   12049023. S2CID   297236.
  42. ↑ Kristen P. Mark & Sarah H. Murray (2012) Gender Differences in Desire Discrepancy as a Predictor of Sexual and Relationship Satisfaction in a College Sample of Heterosexual Romantic Relationships, Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 38:2, 198-215.
  43. ↑ Santtila, P.; Wager, I.; Witting, K.; Harlan, N.; Jern, P.; Johansson, A.; Varjonen, M.; Sandnabba, N. K. (2007). "Discrepancies between sexual desire and sexual activity: Gender differences and associations with relationship satisfaction". Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. 34 (1): 31–44. doi:10.1080/00926230701620548. PMID   18396727. S2CID   19564202.
  44. ↑ Rosen, R. C., & Leiblum, S. R. (1989). Assessment and treatment of desire disorders. In R. Rosen & S. Leiblum (Eds.), Principles and practice of sex therapy (2nd ed., pp. 19–47). New York: Guilford.
  45. ↑ Leiblum, S. R., & Rosen, R. C. (1988). Changing perspectives on sexual desire. In S. Leiblum & R. Rosen (Eds.), Sexual desire disorders (pp. 1–20). New York: Guilford.
  46. ↑ Mercer, G. W.; Kohn, P. M. (1979). "Gender difference in the integration of conservatism, sex urge, and sexual behaviors among college students". Journal of Sex Research. 15 (2): 129–142. doi:10.1080/00224497909551031.
  47. ↑ Baumeister, R.F.; Cantanese, K.R.; Vohs, K.D. (2001). "Is there a gender difference in strength of sex drive? Theoretical views, conceptual distinctions, and a review of relevant evidence". Personality and Social Psychology Review. 5 (3): 242–273. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.186.5369 . doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0503_5. S2CID   13336463.
  48. ↑ McCabe, M.; Cummins, R. (1997). "An evolutionary perspective on human female sexual desire". Sexual and Marital Therapy. 12 (2): 121–126. doi:10.1080/02674659708408154.
  49. ↑ Laumann, E. O., Gagnon, J. H., Michael, R. T., & Michaels, S (1994). The social organization of sexuality: Sexual practices in the United States. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  50. ↑ Baumeister, Roy F.; Catanese, Kathleen R.; Vohs, Kathleen D. (2001). "Is there a Gender Difference in Strength of Sex Drive? Theoretical Views, Conceptual Distinctions, and a Review of Relevant Evidence". Personality and Social Psychology Review. 5 (3): 242–73. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.186.5369 . doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0503_5. S2CID   13336463.
  51. ↑ Dabbs, J. M., Jr. (2000). Heroes, rogues, and lovers: Testosterone and behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill.
  52. ↑ Mazur, A.; Booth, A. (1998). "Testosterone and dominance in men". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 21 (3): 353–397. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.421.3005 . doi:10.1017/s0140525x98001228. PMID   10097017. S2CID   9462611.
  53. ↑ Van Goozen, S. H. M.; Cohen-Kettenis, P. T.; Gooren, L. J. G.; Frijda, N.H.; VandePoll, N.E. (1995). "Gender differences in behaviour: Activating effects of cross-sex hormones". Psychoneuroendocrinology. 20 (4): 343–363. doi:10.1016/0306-4530(94)00076-x. PMID   8532819. S2CID   37881371.
  54. ↑ Shifren, J.L.; Braunstein, G.D.; Simon, J.A.; Casson, P.R.; Buster, J. E.; Redmond, G. P.; Burki, R. E.; Ginsburg, E. S.; Rosen, R. C.; Leiblum, S. R.; Jones, K. P.; Daugherty, C. A.; Caramelli, K. E.; Mazer, N. A. (2000). "Transdermal testosterone treatment in women with impaired sexual function after oophorectomy". New England Journal of Medicine. 343 (10): 682–688. doi: 10.1056/nejm200009073431002 . PMID   10974131. S2CID   7019742.
  55. ↑ Schmitt, D. P. (2003). "Universal gender differences in the desire for sexual variety: Tests from 52 nations, 6 continents, and 13 islands". Journal of Personality & Social Psychology. 85 (1): 85–104. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.1.85. hdl: 20.500.12724/2086 . PMID   12872886. S2CID   17693196.
  56. ↑ Laumann, E. O. (1994). The social organization of sexuality: Sexual practices in the United States. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  57. ↑ Colson, M. H.; Lemaire, A.; Pinton, P.; Hamidi, K.; Klein, P. (2006). "Sexual behaviors and mental perception, satisfaction and expectations of sex life in men and women in France". The Journal of Sexual Medicine. 3 (1): 121–131. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2005.00166.x. PMID   16409225.
  58. 1 2 Buss, D. M. (2005a). (Ed.), The handbook of evolutionary psychology. New York: Wiley
  59. ↑ Milhausen, Robin R.; Herold, Edward S. (1999). "Does The Sexual Double Standard Still Exist? Perceptions of University Women". The Journal of Sex Research. 36 (4): 361–368. doi:10.1080/00224499909552008.
  60. ↑ McCarthy, B.; McDonald, D. (2009). "Assessment, treatment, and relapse prevention: Male hypoactive sexual desire". Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy. 35 (1): 58–67. doi:10.1080/00926230802525653. PMID   19105080. S2CID   5758.
  61. ↑ Beck, J. G.; Bozman, A. W.; Qualtrough, T. (1991). "The experience of sexual desire: Psychological correlates in a college sample". Journal of Sex Research. 28 (3): 443–456. doi:10.1080/00224499109551618.
  62. ↑ Kinsey, A., Pomeroy, W., & Martin, C. (1949). Sexual behavior in the human male. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders.
  63. 1 2 3 Schiavi, R. (1999). Aging and male sexuality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  64. 1 2 Levy, J. (1994). Sex and sexuality in later life stages. In A. S. Rossi (Ed.), Sexuality across the life course (pp. 287–309). Chicago: University of Chicago Press
  65. ↑ Bartlik, B.; Goldstein, M. Z. (2001). "Men's sexual health after midlife". Psychiatric Services. 52 (3): 291–293. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.52.3.291. PMID   11239095.
  66. ↑ Bortz, W. M.; Wallace, D. H.; Wiley, D. (1999). "Sexual function in 1202 aging males: Differentiating aspects". Journal of Gerontology: Medical Sciences. 54A (5): M237–M241. doi: 10.1093/gerona/54.5.M237 . PMID   10362006.
  67. ↑ Levine, S. (1998). Sexuality in mid-life. New York: Plenum Press.
  68. ↑ Masters, W., Johnson, V., & Kolodny, R. (1994). Heterosexuality. New York: Harper Collins
  69. ↑ Hällström, T.; Samuelsson, S. (1990). "Changes in women's sexual desire in middle life: The longitudinal study of women in Gothenburg". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 19 (3): 259–268. doi:10.1007/bf01541551. PMID   2360875. S2CID   28077227.
  70. ↑ Osborn, M.; Hawton, K.; Gath, D. (1988). "Sexual dysfunction among middle and old aged women in the community". British Medical Journal. 296 (6627): 959–962. doi:10.1136/bmj.296.6627.959. PMC   2545434 . PMID   3129108.
  71. ↑ DeLamater, J. D.; Sill, M. (2005). "Sexual desire in later life". Journal of Sex Research. 42 (2): 138–149. doi:10.1080/00224490509552267. PMID   16123844. S2CID   15894788.
  72. ↑ McKinlay, J. & Feldman, H. (1994). Age-related variations in sexual activity and interest in normal men: Results from the Massachusetts Male Aging Study. In A. S. Rossi (Ed.), Sexuality across the life course (pp. 261–285). Chicago: University of Chicago Press
  73. ↑ Diokno, AC; Brown, MB; Herzog, AR (1990). "Sexual function in the elderly". Arch Intern Med. 150 (1): 197–200. doi:10.1001/archinte.150.1.197. PMID   2297288.
  74. ↑ Bretschneider, JG; McCoy, NL (1988). "Sexual interest and behavior in healthy 80 to 102 year olds". Arch Sex Behav. 17 (2): 109–129. doi:10.1007/bf01542662. PMID   3395224. S2CID   24417179.
  75. ↑ Morley, J (2003). "Hormones and the aging process". Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 51 (7 Supplement): S333–S337. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2389.2003.51344.x . PMID   12823664.
  76. ↑ Schover LR. Prime time: sexual health for men over fifty. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston; 1984
  77. ↑ Gades, Naomi M.; Jacobson, Debra J.; McGree, Michaela E.; St. Sauver, Jennifer L.; Lieber, Michael M.; Nehra, Ajay; Girman, Cynthia J.; Klee, George G.; Jacobsen, Steven J. (September 2008). "The Associations Between Serum Sex Hormones, Erectile Function, and Sex Drive: The Olmsted County Study of Urinary Symptoms and Health Status Among Men". The Journal of Sexual Medicine. 5 (9): 2209–2220. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.00924.x. PMC   2586969 . PMID   18624959.
  78. ↑ Sherwin, B (1992). "Menopause and sexuality". Canadian Journal of Obstetrics/Gynecology & Women's Health Care. 4: 254–260.
  79. ↑ Maurice, W. (1999). Sexual medicine in primary care. New York: Mosby.
  80. ↑ Maurice, W. (1999). Sexual medicine in primary care. New York: Mosby
  81. ↑ Yura, H., & Walsh, M. (1983). Human needs and the nursing process. Norwalk, CT: Appleton-Century-Croft.
  82. ↑ Story, M (1989). "Knowledge and attitudes about the sexuality of older adults among retirement home residents". Educational Gerontology. 15 (5): 515–526. doi:10.1080/0380127890150507.
  83. ↑ Friend, R. A. Older lesbian and gay people: A theory of successful aging. In J. Lee. (Ed.), Gay and midlife maturity (pp.99-118). New York: Haworth Press.
  84. ↑ Deacon, S.; Minichiello, V.; Plummer, D. (1995). "Sexuality and older people: Revisiting the assumptions". Educational Gerontology. 21 (5): 497–513. doi:10.1080/0360127950210509.
  85. ↑ Ferreira, L. C.; Narciso, I.; Novo, R. F. (2012). "Intimacy, sexual desire and differentiation in couplehood: A theoretical and methodological review". Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. 38 (3): 263–280. doi:10.1080/0092623x.2011.606885. PMID   22533870. S2CID   5595312.
  86. ↑ Baumeister, R. F.; Bratslavsky, E. (1999). "Passion, intimacy, and time: Passionate love as a function of change in intimacy". Personality and Social Psychology Review. 3 (1): 49–67. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0301_3. PMID   15647147. S2CID   10894752.
  87. ↑ Impett, E. A.; Strachman, A.; Finkel, E. J.; Gable, S. L. (2008). "Maintaining sexual desire in intimate relationships: The importance of approach goals". Journal of Personality & Social Psychology. 94 (5): 808–823. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.5.808. PMID   18444740. S2CID   13949536.
  88. ↑ Chelune, G. J., Robison, J. T., & Kommer, M. J. (1984). A cognitive interactional model of intimate relationships. In V. J. Derlega (Ed.), Communication, intimacy and close relationships (pp. 11–46). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

Sources

See also

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.