Direct detection of dark matter

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Direct detection of dark matter is the science of attempting to directly measure dark matter collisions in Earth-based experiments. Modern astrophysical measurements, such as from the Cosmic Microwave Background, strongly indicate that 85% of the matter content of the universe is unaccounted for. [1] Although the existence of dark matter is widely believed, what form it takes or its precise properties has never been determined. There are three main avenues of research to detect dark matter: attempts to make dark matter in accelerators, indirect detection of dark matter annihilation, and direct detection of dark matter in terrestrial labs. The founding principle of direct dark matter detection is that since dark matter is known to exist in the local universe, as the Earth, Solar System, and the Milky Way Galaxy carve out a path through the universe they must intercept dark matter, regardless of what form it takes.

Contents

Direct detection of dark matter faces several practical challenges. The theoretical bounds for the supposed mass of dark matter are immense, spanning some 90 orders of magnitude from 10−21 eV to about that of a Solar Mass. [2] The lower limit of dark matter is constrained by the knowledge that dark matter exists in dwarf galaxies. [3] From this knowledge a lower constraint is put on the mass of dark matter, as any less massive dark matter would have a de Broglie wavelength too massive to fit inside observed dwarf galaxies. [4] On the other end of the spectrum the upper limit of dark matter mass is constrained experimentally; gravitational microlensing using the Kepler telescope is done to detect MACHOs (MAssive Compact Halo Objects). Null results of this experiment exclude any dark matter candidate more massive than about a solar mass. [5] As a result of this extremely vast parameter space, there exist a wide variety of proposed types of dark matter, in addition to a broad assortment of proposed experiments and methods to detect them. The spectrum of proposed dark matter matter mass is split into three broad, loosely defined categories as follows:

In the range of zepto-electronvolts (zeV) to 1 eV theories predict a bosonic or field like dark matter. The primary dark matter candidate in the range are axions, or axion-like particles. From about 1 eV to the Planck Mass, dark matter is projected to be fermionic or particle-like. Favorites in this range include WIMPS, thermal relics, and sterile neutrinos. Finally, in the mass range between the Planck Mass to masses on the order of the Solar mass, dark matter would be a composite particle. The leading theory for composite dark matter are primordial black holes.

Bosonic / field dark matter

Any dark matter candidate with a mass less than approximately 1 eV and greater than 1 zeV is projected to be bosons, or a field, as opposed to a more traditional particle. Any lesser mass could not fit its de Broglie wavelength into dwarf galaxies. [4]

Axions

Axions are theoretical, as of yet undiscovered, subatomic particles originally proposed in 1977 to solve inconsistencies in the Standard Model, i.e. the strong CP problem. A consequence of this solution is to generate an axion field, which would in turn indicate a cosmological abundance of axions that depend on the mass of the axion. [6] If the axion mass is heavier then 5 μeV/c2, then axions could account for all dark matter phenomena. [7]

The parameter space excluded by the 2021 ADMX research results. ADMX Axion Parameter Space Exclusion 2021.png
The parameter space excluded by the 2021 ADMX research results.

One of the only experiments to detect axions as dark matter is the Axion Dark Matter Experiment (ADMX). Located at the University of Washington, ADMX uses a resonant microwave cavity in a strong magnetic field to convert dark matter into microwave photons by means of the Primakoff effect. [9] Microwave cavities are simple electrical devices that are built to resonate at extremely precise frequencies to create standing microwaves inside of the cavity. ADMX uses this technology to tune their microwave cavity to the resonance of axions located in the Milky Way halo. The purpose of this is to increase the interaction of axions with the high strength eight Tesla magnetic field present to better facilitate the Primakoff effect. The Primakoff effect is an as yet un proven mechanism for the production of mesons from high energy interactions of photons with a nucleus. [10] Axions qualify for this interaction, meaning that infamously undetectable dark matter could theoretically be converted into mundane photons. [11] Although ADMX has yet to detect dark matter, its capabilities are promising. The experiment is capable of probing previously difficult to reach sections of the parameter space. The primary downside of the ADMX experiment is that the microwave cavity requires very fine tuning, meaning only a minuscule amount of the parameter space is probed at a time.

Weakly Interacting slim particles (WISPs)

Weakly Interacting Slim Particles (WISPs) are a broader category of particles with extremely small masses and interaction cross sections, of which axions are a member. Active neutrinos are the only WISP confirmed to exist, although they have been definitively ruled out as a dark matter candidate. In common usage, WISP is generally used to refer to any non axion ultra light dark matter particle. Leading theories suggest that such particles would interact with the standard model largely through coupling to photons, and would survive to the modern era after creation in the early universe. [12]

Fermionic / particle dark matter

Dark matter masses between 1 eV and the Planck Mass are hypothesized to be fermionic particles.

Weakly interacting massive particles

Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs) are a broad category of theoretical particles, that interact not at all or very weakly with all forces except gravity. [13] WIMPs are a member of a broader category of particles called thermal relics, particles which were created thermally in the early universe, as opposed to being created non-thermally later during a phase transition. [14] As with all dark matter candidates, interaction probability is extraordinarily low, leading to a variety of techniques to be developed.

Experimental techniques

Direct detection of dark matter is based upon the premise that since it is known that dark matter exists in some form, Earth must intercept some as it carves out a path through the universe. Direct detection experiments attempt to create highly sensitive systems capable of detecting these rare and weak events.

Cryogenic crystal detectors

Cryogenic Crystal Detectors use disks of germanium and silicon cooled to around 50 millikelvin. These disks are coated in either tungsten or aluminum. An interacting WIMP would in theory excite the crystal lattice, sending vibrations to the surface, which is held precisely at its superconductivity threshold. Due to this the coating material's resistivity is highly dependent on heat, enough so that the energy deposited by the vibration is detectable. [15]

One such detector is the Cryogenic Rare Event Search with Superconducting Thermometers (CRESST) located at the Gran Sasso National Laboratory in Assergi, Italy. Operating in multiple generations since 2000 CRESST has continually been evolving and improving its sensitivity range, although it has not yet definitively detected dark matter. As a notable side achievement, CRESST was the first experiment to detect the alpha decay of tungsten-180. [16] The most recent generation of CRESST has enhanced its capabilities to detect WIMP dark matter as light as 160 MeV/c2. [17]

Noble gas scintillators

Noble gas scintillators use the property of certain materials to scintillate, which is when a material absorbs energy from a particle and remits the same amount of energy as light. [18] Of particular interest for dark matter detection is the use of noble gases, even more specifically liquid xenon.

Upper limit for spin-independent WIMP-nucleon cross section according to XENON1T data (published Nov. 2017) XENON1T.png
Upper limit for spin-independent WIMP-nucleon cross section according to XENON1T data (published Nov. 2017)

The XENON series of experiments, also located at the Gran Sasso National Lab, is a forefront user of liquid xenon scintillators. Common across all generations of the experiment, the detector consists of a tank of liquid xenon with a gaseous layer on top. At the top and bottom of the detector is a layer of photomultiplier tubes (PMTs). When a dark matter particle collides with the liquid xenon, it rapidly releases a photon which is detected by the PMTs. To cross reference this data point an electric field is applied which is sufficiently large to prevent complete recombination of the electrons knocked loose by the interaction. These drift to the top of the detector and are also detected, creating two separate detections for each event. Measuring the time delay between these allows for a complete 3-D reconstruction of the interaction. [19] The detector is also able to discriminate between electronic recoils and nuclear recoils, as both types of events would produce differing ratios of the photon energy and the released electron energy.

Projected WIMP mass and cross sections from XENONnT as compared to XENON1T. XENONnT WIMP Parameter Projected Limits.png
Projected WIMP mass and cross sections from XENONnT as compared to XENON1T.

The most recently completed version of the XENON experiment is XENON1T, which used 3.2 tons of liquid xenon. This experiment produced a then record limit for the cross section of WIMP dark matter of 4.1×10−47 cm2 at a mass of 30 GeV/c2. [21] The most recent iteration of the XENON succession is XENONnT, which is currently running with 8 tones of liquid xenon. This experiment is projected to be able to probe WIMP-nucleon cross sections of 1.4×10−48 cm2 for a 50 GeV/c2 WIMP mass. [22] At this ultra-low cross section, interference from the background neutrino flux is predicted to be problematic.

Crystal scintillators

Crystal scintillator experiments are a middle ground between cryogenic crystal detectors and noble gas scintillators, using the crystals of the former and the scintillation properties of the latter. One such experiment that uses this technology is the DAMA/LIBRA experiment, once again located in the Gran Sasso National Laboratory in Italy. Unique to dark matter experiments DAMA/LIBRA attempts to measure an annual variation of the flux of dark matter. This concept is born from the knowledge that as the Earth's rotation comes in sync and out of sync of the Sun's motion through the Milky Way, the relative motion of a terrestrial detector to the dark matter halo would change, resulting in a differing flux of dark matter. DAMA/LIBRA has claimed to see such modulation, although the scientific community as a whole has yet to accept these results as valid. [23] Disbelievers of this result claim that it is not due to a variation of WIMP flux, but rather due to uncontrolled seasonal changes. To test this other similar experiments, namely the Sodium-iodide with Active Background Rejection (SABRE) are being built in Gran Sasso and another instalment in Australia. The purpose of spreading out the experiments across both hemispheres is that if the modulation for the locations is in sync then that would positively indicate a change in the dark matter flux, whereas if the measured variations are six months out of sync, then that would indicate unaccounted for seasonal variations.

Bubble chambers

Bubble chambers, originally invented in 1952, are largely phased out but still have some use in WIMP dark matter detection. Bubble chambers are filled with superheated liquid held close to its phase transition. When a particle interacts with the superheated liquid the energy it imparts is enough to trigger a phase transition, causing any charged particles to leave an ionization trail of bubbles, which are detected. One such experiment that uses a bubble chamber is PICO, at SNOLAB in Canada. PICO was formed in 2013 as a combination of two previous similar experiments, PICASSO and COUPP. PICO employs a more advanced form of a bubble chamber, using individual droplets of a superheated gas, namely Freon, that are suspended in a gel matrix. [24] The advantage of this setup is that the individual droplets slow down the phase transition, allowing for longer periods of detector activity. PICO currently has a 2-liter and a 60-liter detector, with a new version with a mass in the range of 250-500 liters being planned. Although PICO like all bubble chambers has fantastically low background noise, they are still detecting anomalous background events inconsistent with assumed dark matter characteristics. Additionally PICO was capable of ruling out interactions with unwanted iodine as the cause of the previously mentioned DAMA/LIBRA experiment's claimed dark matter modulation. [25]

Sterile neutrinos

A Sterile neutrino is a theoretical type of neutrino that interacts only via gravity. [26] The weak force only interacts with particles with left chirality, or left-handed neutrinos. Sterile neutrinos are proposed to be right handed, meaning they would only interact with gravity. Sterile neutrinos are viable dark matter candidates because they only interact via gravity, as is predicted for dark matter. Unfortunately, most current theories predict cold dark matter, meaning dark matter candidates that are non-relativistic. Due to their mass and energy, sterile neutrinos would be likely relativistic and thus count as hot dark matter. Sterile neutrinos could still be a constituent of dark matter, but it is highly unlikely that they are the only component. [27]

Composite dark matter

Dark matter mass between the Planck Mass and those on the order of the Solar Mass are hypothesized to be macroscopic composite objects. Masses much beyond the solar mass are ruled out observationally by the lack of gravitational microlensing events using the Kepler telescope. [5]

Primordial black hole

Primordial black holes are black holes that formed very early in the universe, and without the collapse of a star. [28] The theory behind primordial black holes is that in the extremely early universe, under one second, random fluctuations would cause local gravitational collapse into black holes. [29] Since primordial black holes did not form from stellar collapse, they can have masses far below that of a solar mass, ranging from 10 micrograms to many solar masses. [30] However, only primordial black holes with masses above 1011 kg would still exist today, as any less massive would have completely evaporated via Hawking radiation by the modern era. [31]

Primordial black holes are plausible dark matter candidates, however arguments based upon their observed abundance cast doubt on their ability to be the only constituent of dark matter. [32] Conversely, other research groups claim that gravitational waves detected by LIGO/VIRGO are consistent with primordial black holes making up 100% of dark matter, given if a relatively large amount of them were clustered within the halos of dwarf galaxies. [33] An additional inconsistency with this claim is that the primordial black hole mass claimed could overlap with excluded mass range from Kepler micro-lensing. [34]

The GAIA spacecraft, launched by the European Space Agency is tasked with creating the largest and most detailed map of space and all objects within it ever created, including possible composite dark matter candidates. Although not specifically searching for dark matter, it is possible that dark matter scientists will be able to find dark matter among the 1 billion objects it will catalogue during its lifetime. [35]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dark matter</span> Concept in cosmology

In astronomy, dark matter is a hypothetical form of matter that does not interact with light or other electromagnetic radiation. Dark matter is implied by gravitational effects which cannot be explained by general relativity unless more matter is present than can be observed. Such effects occur in the context of formation and evolution of galaxies, gravitational lensing, the observable universe's current structure, mass position in galactic collisions, the motion of galaxies within galaxy clusters, and cosmic microwave background anisotropies.

Weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) are hypothetical particles that are one of the proposed candidates for dark matter.

In cosmology and physics, cold dark matter (CDM) is a hypothetical type of dark matter. According to the current standard model of cosmology, Lambda-CDM model, approximately 27% of the universe is dark matter and 68% is dark energy, with only a small fraction being the ordinary baryonic matter that composes stars, planets, and living organisms. Cold refers to the fact that the dark matter moves slowly compared to the speed of light, giving it a vanishing equation of state. Dark indicates that it interacts very weakly with ordinary matter and electromagnetic radiation. Proposed candidates for CDM include weakly interacting massive particles, primordial black holes, and axions.

An axion is a hypothetical elementary particle originally theorized in 1978 independently by Frank Wilczek and Steven Weinberg as the Goldstone boson of Peccei–Quinn theory, which had been proposed in 1977 to solve the strong CP problem in quantum chromodynamics (QCD). If axions exist and have low mass within a specific range, they are of interest as a possible component of cold dark matter.

In particle physics, majorons are a hypothetical type of Goldstone boson that are conjectured to mediate the neutrino mass violation of lepton number or B − L in certain high energy collisions such as

The DAMA/NaI experiment investigated the presence of dark matter particles in the galactic halo by exploiting the model-independent annual modulation signature. Based on the Earth's orbit around the Sun and the solar system's speed with respect to the center of the galaxy, the Earth should be exposed to a higher flux of dark matter particles around June 1, when its orbital speed is added to the one of the solar system with respect to the galaxy and to a smaller one around December 2, when the two velocities are subtracted. The annual modulation signature is distinctive since the effect induced by dark matter particles must simultaneously satisfy many requirements.

The Cryogenic Dark Matter Search (CDMS) is a series of experiments designed to directly detect particle dark matter in the form of Weakly Interacting Massive Particles. Using an array of semiconductor detectors at millikelvin temperatures, CDMS has at times set the most sensitive limits on the interactions of WIMP dark matter with terrestrial materials. The first experiment, CDMS I, was run in a tunnel under the Stanford University campus. It was followed by CDMS II experiment in the Soudan Mine. The most recent experiment, SuperCDMS, was located deep underground in the Soudan Mine in northern Minnesota and collected data from 2011 through 2015. The series of experiments continues with SuperCDMS SNOLAB, an experiment located at the SNOLAB facility near Sudbury, Ontario, in Canada that started construction in 2018 and is expected to start data taking in early 2020s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">IceCube Neutrino Observatory</span> Neutrino detector at the South Pole

The IceCube Neutrino Observatory is a neutrino observatory developed by the University of Wisconsin–Madison and constructed at the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station in Antarctica. The project is a recognized CERN experiment (RE10). Its thousands of sensors are located under the Antarctic ice, distributed over a cubic kilometer.

The XENON dark matter research project, operated at the Italian Gran Sasso National Laboratory, is a deep underground detector facility featuring increasingly ambitious experiments aiming to detect hypothetical dark matter particles. The experiments aim to detect particles in the form of weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) by looking for rare nuclear recoil interactions in a liquid xenon target chamber. The current detector consists of a dual phase time projection chamber (TPC).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">DEAP</span> Dark matter search experiment

DEAP is a direct dark matter search experiment which uses liquid argon as a target material. DEAP utilizes background discrimination based on the characteristic scintillation pulse-shape of argon. A first-generation detector (DEAP-1) with a 7 kg target mass was operated at Queen's University to test the performance of pulse-shape discrimination at low recoil energies in liquid argon. DEAP-1 was then moved to SNOLAB, 2 km below Earth's surface, in October 2007 and collected data into 2011.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Large Underground Xenon experiment</span> Dark matter detection experiment

The Large Underground Xenon experiment (LUX) aimed to directly detect weakly interacting massive particle (WIMP) dark matter interactions with ordinary matter on Earth. Despite the wealth of (gravitational) evidence supporting the existence of non-baryonic dark matter in the Universe, dark matter particles in our galaxy have never been directly detected in an experiment. LUX utilized a 370 kg liquid xenon detection mass in a time-projection chamber (TPC) to identify individual particle interactions, searching for faint dark matter interactions with unprecedented sensitivity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cryogenic Rare Event Search with Superconducting Thermometers</span>

The Cryogenic Rare Event Search with Superconducting Thermometers (CRESST) is a collaboration of European experimental particle physics groups involved in the construction of cryogenic detectors for direct dark matter searches. The participating institutes are the Max Planck Institute for Physics (Munich), Technical University of Munich, University of Tübingen (Germany), University of Oxford, the Comenius University Bratislava (Slovakia) and the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare.

The chameleon is a hypothetical scalar particle that couples to matter more weakly than gravity, postulated as a dark energy candidate. Due to a non-linear self-interaction, it has a variable effective mass which is an increasing function of the ambient energy density—as a result, the range of the force mediated by the particle is predicted to be very small in regions of high density but much larger in low-density intergalactic regions: out in the cosmos chameleon models permit a range of up to several thousand parsecs. As a result of this variable mass, the hypothetical fifth force mediated by the chameleon is able to evade current constraints on equivalence principle violation derived from terrestrial experiments even if it couples to matter with a strength equal or greater than that of gravity. Although this property would allow the chameleon to drive the currently observed acceleration of the universe's expansion, it also makes it very difficult to test for experimentally.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Light dark matter</span> Dark matter weakly interacting massive particles candidates with masses less than 1 GeV

Light dark matter, in astronomy and cosmology, are dark matter weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPS) candidates with masses less than 1 GeV. These particles are heavier than warm dark matter and hot dark matter, but are lighter than the traditional forms of cold dark matter, such as Massive Compact Halo Objects (MACHOs). The Lee-Weinberg bound limits the mass of the favored dark matter candidate, WIMPs, that interact via the weak interaction to GeV. This bound arises as follows. The lower the mass of WIMPs is, the lower the annihilation cross section, which is of the order , where m is the WIMP mass and M the mass of the Z-boson. This means that low mass WIMPs, which would be abundantly produced in the early universe, freeze out much earlier and thus at a higher temperature, than higher mass WIMPs. This leads to a higher relic WIMP density. If the mass is lower than GeV the WIMP relic density would overclose the universe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">EDELWEISS</span>

EDELWEISS is a dark matter search experiment located at the Modane Underground Laboratory in France. The experiment uses cryogenic detectors, measuring both the phonon and ionization signals produced by particle interactions in germanium crystals. This technique allows nuclear recoils events to be distinguished from electron recoil events.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Primordial black hole</span> Hypothetical black hole formed soon after the Big Bang

In cosmology, primordial black holes (PBHs) are hypothetical black holes that formed soon after the Big Bang. In the inflationary era and early radiation-dominated universe, extremely dense pockets of subatomic matter may have been tightly packed to the point of gravitational collapse, creating primordial black holes without the supernova compression typically needed to make black holes today. Because the creation of primordial black holes would pre-date the first stars, they are not limited to the narrow mass range of stellar black holes.

The Particle and Astrophysical Xenon Detector, or PandaX, is a dark matter detection experiment at China Jinping Underground Laboratory (CJPL) in Sichuan, China. The experiment occupies the deepest underground laboratory in the world, and is among the largest of its kind.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LZ experiment</span> Experiment in South Dakota, United States

The LUX-ZEPLIN (LZ) Experiment is a next-generation dark matter direct detection experiment hoping to observe weakly interacting massive particles (WIMP) scatters on nuclei. It was formed in 2012 by combining the LUX and ZEPLIN groups. It is currently a collaboration of 30 institutes in the US, UK, Portugal and South Korea. The experiment is located at about 1,500 meteres under the Sanford Underground Research Facility (SURF) in South Dakota, and is managed by the United States Department of Energy's (DOE) Lawrence Berkeley National Lab.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">FASER experiment</span> 2022 particle physics experiment at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN

FASER is one of the nine particle physics experiments in 2022 at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. It is designed to both search for new light and weakly coupled elementary particles, and to detect and study the interactions of high-energy collider neutrinos. In 2023, FASER and SND@LHC reported the first observation of collider neutrinos.

Daniel S. Akerib is an American particle physicist and astrophysicist. He was elected in 2008 a fellow of the American Physical Society (APS).

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  26. ↑ "Sterile neutrinos | All Things Neutrino" . Retrieved 2022-04-30.
  27. ↑ Ibarra, Alejandro (2015-07-15). "Neutrinos and dark matter". AIP Conference Proceedings. 1666 (1): 140004. Bibcode:2015AIPC.1666n0004I. doi: 10.1063/1.4915588 .
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  29. ↑ Harada, Tomohiro; Yoo, Chul-Moon; Kohri, Kazunori (2013-09-17). "Threshold of primordial black hole formation". Physical Review D. 88 (8): 084051. arXiv: 1309.4201v4 . Bibcode:2013PhRvD..88h4051H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.88.084051. S2CID   119305036.
  30. ↑ Overduin, J. M.; Wesson, P. S. (November 2004). "Dark Matter and Background Light". Physics Reports. 402 (5–6): 267–406. arXiv: astro-ph/0407207 . Bibcode:2004PhR...402..267O. doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2004.07.006. S2CID   1634052.
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