Einsatzgruppe H

Einsatzgruppe H
Einsatzgruppe H
Active	August 1944
Disbanded	March 1945
Country	Germany
Allegiance	Nazi
Branch	Einsatzgruppen
Type	Paramilitary
Role	To deport or murder the remaining Jews in the Slovak Republic
Size	700
Commanders
Notable; commanders	Josef Witiska

Last updated June 12, 2024

Einsatzgruppe H was one of the Einsatzgruppen , the paramilitary death squads of Nazi Germany. A special task force of more than 700 soldiers, it was created at the end of August 1944 to deport or murder the remaining Jews in Slovakia following the German suppression of the Slovak National Uprising. During its seven-month existence, Einsatzgruppe H collaborated closely with the Hlinka Guard Emergency Divisions and arrested 18,937 people, of whom at least 2,257 were murdered; thousands of others were deported to Nazi concentration camps (primarily Auschwitz). The victims included Jews, Romani people, actual or suspected Slovak partisans, and real or perceived political opponents. One of its component units, Einsatzkommando 14, committed the two of the largest massacres in the history of Slovakia, at Kremnička and Nemecká.

Background

On 14 March 1939, the Slovak State proclaimed its independence under the protection of Nazi Germany.^[1] According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, the persecution of Jews was "central to the domestic policy of the Slovak state".^[2] Between 26 March and 20 October 1942, about 57,000 Jews, two-thirds of the Jews in Slovakia at the time, were deported. Only a few hundred survived the war.^[3]^[4] In 1943, the defeat at Stalingrad turned many Slovaks against the Axis-aligned regime, and the government refused to continue with deportations.^[5]^[6] It was now evident to the Slovak population that Germany would not win the war, and high casualties on the Eastern Front caused many ordinary Slovaks and large sections of the army to turn against the fascist regime; many retreated to the mountains and formed partisan groups. Concerned about the increase in resistance and suspecting the loyalty of the Slovaks, Germany invaded Slovakia, precipitating the Slovak National Uprising, which broke out on 29 August 1944.^[7]

The Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) assigned Einsatzgruppe H to implement the Final Solution in Slovakia,^[8] and deport or murder the 25,000 ethnic Jews remaining in Slovakia. Most of these were converts to Christianity, in mixed marriages, deemed essential to the economy, or protected by other exemptions that had prevented their deportation in 1942.^[9] Because of the advance of the Red Army into Poland, the Nazis wanted to deport Slovakia's remaining Jews to Auschwitz as soon as possible, as the camp would shut down its gas chambers in November.^[10]

Formation

Einsatzgruppe H and its two main component units, Einsatzkommando s 13 and 14, were formed in Brno (in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia) upon the outbreak of the Slovak National Uprising, on 28 or 29 August. Its commander was SS- Obersturmbannfuhrer Josef Witiska [ de; fr; sv ].^[11] Other German units were tasked with the military suppression of the uprising; Einsatzgruppe H's main focus was to implement the Final Solution in Slovakia. To this end, it intervened with the Slovak government and public life, carried out military actions against partisans, engaged in roundups, and committed massacres.^[12] The unit also submitted regular, detailed reports to Berlin concerning all aspects of life in Slovakia, including the military situation, Jews, public opinion, and culture.^[13] It exceeded its remit by targeting other groups, including partisans and Romani people.^[8]

Military role

SS General Gottlob Berger, who was appointed German military commander in Slovakia to suppress the uprising, and his superiors in Berlin, believed that the partisans would be defeated in a few days, despite warnings from Karl Hermann Frank and others. Too few German troops were dispatched, so Einsatzgruppe H was drafted into active military actions, focusing on disarming Slovak Army units perceived to be unreliable. Due to his failure to suppress the uprising, Berger was recalled after three weeks and General Hermann Höfle replaced him. Banská Bystrica, the rebel headquarters, fell on 27 October, and the partisans shifted their strategy to guerrilla warfare.^[14]^[11]

Anti-Jewish actions

Two days after the outbreak of the rebellion, Witiska met with Berger; the German ambassador to Slovakia, Hans Ludin; Erich Ehrlinger of the RSHA; and Erwin Weinmann [ de; fr; sv ], the commander of the SS and SD in the Protectorate. The object of this meeting was to discuss how to implement a "radical solution" (German : radikalen Lösung) to the "Jewish question" in Slovakia.^[15]^[16]

Most Jews were captured during roundups; either they were imprisoned at local prisons or else taken to the Einsatzgruppe H office in Bratislava, from which they were sent to Sereď concentration camp for deportation. In many cases, the local authorities provided lists of Jews. By this time, the Jews knew that deportation meant probable death, so many tried to flee, go into hiding, or otherwise avoid arrest. The attitude of the local population was ambivalent; some risked their lives to hide Jews, while others turned them in to the police.^[17]

Following the uprising, Einsatzgruppe H collaborated with the Hlinka Guard Emergency Divisions (POHG) and a local Volksdeutsche paramilitary organization, the Heimatschutz (HS), to create an atmosphere of terror in rural Slovakia, perpetrating public executions and massacres of Jews, Romani people, and those suspected of supporting partisans.^[11]^[18] The success of Einsatzgruppe H was largely due to denunciations and the cooperation of the POHG and the HS, were able to impersonate partisans due to their local knowledge and ability to speak Slovak. These collaborators participated in the massacres, aided with interrogations, and searched houses for Jews in hiding.^[19]

Organization

Einsatzgruppe H was organized hierarchically as were other Einsatzgruppe units. It was run from a central headquarters in Bratislava, where Witiska maintained an office at Palisády 42 with about 160 personnel. At its peak, the unit had six subunits with stationary headquarters: Sonderkommando 7a, Einsatzkommandos 13 and 14, and zb-V Kommandos 15, 27, and 29. Of these, Einsatzkommandos 13 and 14 and zb-V Kommando 27 were newly formed, while the other units had been transferred from other duties. Not all were subordinated to Einsatzgruppe H for the entirety of their activities in Slovakia; for instance, zb-V Kommando 27, which operated in eastern Slovakia from September 1944, was subordinated to the SD office in Kraków until January 1945. Except for zb-V Kommando 15, dissolved in February, the units continued to exist until the occupation of Slovakia by the Red Army, at which point most of the personnel fled into Moravia. More than 700 soldiers served in Einsatzgruppe H at one point, although the exact numbers cannot be determined.^[20]

Organizationally, the unit was part of the Wehrmacht, but it was never under Wehrmacht operational control.^[21] On 15 November 1944, the unit was transferred to the control of the SD and ceased to be called Einsatzgruppe H officially, but the unit maintained the same personnel. A few days later, Witiska was promoted to the head of the SiPo and SD in Slovakia, but maintained control over the unit.^[22]

Although the members of the unit were very diverse in terms of age, education, and affiliation with the Nazi Party, most had previous experience with combat or rear-area operations.^[23]^[24] Some were Slovaks.^[25]

Einsatzkommando 13

Einsatzkommando 13(sk) was commanded by Otto Koslowski, Hans Jaskulsky, and then Karl Schmitz.^[22] 446 Jews were rounded up in western and central Slovakia by Einsatzkommando 13; they were held at Ilava prison before being deported from Žilina to concentration camps in Germany.^[26]

On 13/14 September, the unit did a roundup in Žilina, arresting hundreds of Jews who were held in Sereď and Ilava before their deportation to concentration camps, especially Auschwitz. Few survived the war.^[27]

Einsatzkommando 14

Einsatzkommando 14(cs, sk), commanded by Georg Heuser [ be; de; ru ], was the main unit of Einsatzgruppe H.^[28] Heuser had been the commander of the SiPo in Minsk, where he had helped organize the mass shootings of Belarusian Jews. Einsatzkommando 14 advanced behind the SS front-line unit Kampfgruppe Schill [ cs; sk ] from Nitra to Topoľčany, where it set up a temporary headquarters. In mid-September, the unit moved farther east to Baťovany, and after the fall of Banská Bystrica in late October it moved to that location.^[29]

The unit was responsible for 2,876 murders, including the largest massacres on Slovak territory:^[25] Kremnička massacre [ cs; sk ], with at least 747 victims, and Nemecká massacre, with some 900 victims. These massacres were committed in cooperation with the POHG and the HS.^[28]^[30]

On 3 September, the unit conducted a hunt for hidden Jews in Topoľčany.^[27]
On 11 September 1944, the unit shot 350 Jews at Nemčice (near Topoľčany), including women, children, and a four-month-old infant.^[19]
On 3 October, 48 people were shot at Martin for alleged partisan activities.^[19]
On 24 November the unit arrested 109 Romani people from the village of Ilija, including women and children, who were later shot at Kremnička.^[19]
On 12 December, 31 people were removed from the prison in Brezno and murdered in a nearby field. The bodies were buried in a shallow trench and exhumed ten days later after the Germans were persuaded that it was a health hazard. Victims included several partisans and an entire Jewish family, including seven-year-old Ladislav Ferenc.^[31]
In January 1945, four alleged guerillas were hanged in Zlaté Moravce.^[19]
Also in January, seven Jews found in hiding in Donovaly were shot along with their rescuer, and the house burned down.^[19]

Einsatzkommando 29

Einsatzkommando 29 and local collaborators committed the 28 September roundup in Bratislava, organized by Alois Brunner.^[32] On 26 September, the Germans raided the Jewish Center, obtaining a list of Jews, with which they prepared the operation.^[33] On the night of 28 September, 1,600^[34] or 1,800 Jews in Bratislava were arrested and held in the Jewish Council's headquarters until 6 am, when they were loaded onto freight cars and transported to Sereď, arriving at 2 am on 30 September. They were deported to Auschwitz concentration camp later that month, where most were murdered.^[35] Notably, the victims included most of the leadership of the Working Group, a Jewish resistance organization.^[36]^[32] This was the largest roundup in Slovakia^[34] and an example of Slovak collaboration.^[27] After the September operation, Einsatzkommando 29 established an office in the former Jewish Center (Edelgasse 6) to hunt down Jews in hiding. When Jews were captured, they were interrogated and tortured if they did not give the names and addresses of other Jews in hiding. The bodies of victims who were tortured to death were thrown into the Danube.^[37] This was staffed largely from members of the Heimatschutz.^[38]

Summary

According to Einsatzgruppe H's official records, the unit arrested 18,937 people: 9,653 Jews, 3,409 "bandits" (actual or suspected partisans), 2,186 defectors, 714 resistance members, 172 Romani people and 546 others. Of these, 2,257 were subjected to Sonderbehandlung (summary execution).^[39]^[9] The unit captured the leaders of the uprising, Generals Jan Golian and Rudolf Viest, as well as a few American and British military personnel and German soldiers suspected of defeatism or homosexuality.^[9]

After the liberation of Slovakia by the Red Army, 211 mass graves with 5,304 victims shot by Axis forces in late 1944 and early 1945 were discovered; a quarter of the victims were women and children. Some 90 villages were razed.^[40]^[18] Of the approximately 25,000 Jews present in Slovakia at the beginning of the uprising,^[7] 13,500 were deported—most of whom died—and several hundred massacred in Slovakia.^[41]

Trials

Witiska committed suicide in American captivity in 1946, in order to avoid being brought to trial in Czechoslovakia. Koslowski, the commander of Einsatzkommando 13, was sentenced to death by a Czechoslovak court and executed in Brno in 1947.^[42] Twenty-two of the officers were convicted, four of them in Czechoslovakia for crimes committed in the Czech lands, three in Yugoslavia, two in Poland, and one each in Austria, Slovakia, and France (the remainder were convicted by Germany) but these convictions were for other crimes.^[24] Most members of the unit avoided prosecution for war crimes and made successful careers in West Germany.^[42]

Fifteen judicial proceedings relating to the unit were opened in West Germany, mostly relating to the deportation and murder of Slovak Jews. Only one man, Silvester Weiss, was ever indicted by a German court for crimes committed as part of the unit; he was born on 27 November 1925 in Slovakia and prosecuted under juvenile law in 1964. After being convicted for his role in the murder of a hostage, he was conditionally released and did not serve any time in prison. According to Czech historian Lenka Šindelářová, part of the failure to hold the perpetrators accountable was the lack of will on the part of German investigators, although the difficulty of obtaining evidence 20 years after the fact and statute of limitations also prevented cases from coming to trial. A few other members of Einsatzgruppe H were convicted as accomplices to murder for crimes committed with other units, but these sentences were typically light; one person was sentenced to six years in jail for the murder of 28,450 people. Heuser, responsible for Einsatzkommando 14's massacres, rose to a senior position in the West German police service before being convicted for assisting in the murder of 11,000 people in and around Minsk as a member of the Gestapo. He was released after serving six years of a 15-year sentence.^[42]

The topic of Einsatzgruppe H was understudied until the publication of Šindelářová's book, Finale der Vernichtung: die Einsatzgruppe H in der Slowakei 1944/1945 (End of the Extermination: the Einsatzgruppe H in Slovakia 1944/1945) in 2013. It was based on her dissertation at the University of Stuttgart.^[43]

Related Research Articles

During World War II, the Nazi German Einsatzkommandos were a sub-group of the Einsatzgruppen – up to 3,000 men total – usually composed of 500–1,000 functionaries of the SS and Gestapo, whose mission was to exterminate Jews, Polish intellectuals, Romani, and communists in the captured territories often far behind the advancing German front. Einsatzkommandos, along with Sonderkommandos, were responsible for the systematic murder of Jews during the aftermath of Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. After the war, several commanders were tried in the Einsatzgruppen trial, convicted, and executed.

The history of the Jews in Slovakia goes back to the 11th century, when the first Jews settled in the area.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gisi Fleischmann</span>

Gisi Fleischmann was a Zionist activist and the leader of the Bratislava Working Group, one of the best known Jewish rescue groups during the Holocaust. Fleischmann was arrested on 15 October 1944 and was murdered in the Auschwitz concentration camp three days later.

The Topoľčany pogrom was an antisemitic riot in Topoľčany, Slovakia, on 24 September 1945 and the best-known incident of postwar violence against Jews in Slovakia. The underlying cause was resurgent antisemitism directed at Jewish Holocaust survivors who demanded the return of property that had been stolen during the Holocaust. Rumors spread that a local Catholic school would be nationalized and the nuns who taught there replaced by Jewish teachers.

The Slovak National Uprising was a military uprising organized by the Slovak resistance movement during World War II in central Slovakia. This resistance movement was represented mainly by members of the Democratic Party, social democrats, and communists. It was launched on 29 August 1944 from Banská Bystrica in an attempt to resist German troops that had occupied Slovak territory and to overthrow the collaborationist government of Jozef Tiso. Although the resistance was largely defeated by German forces, guerrilla operations continued until the Red Army, Czechoslovak Army and Romanian Army occupied the Slovak Republic in 1945.

Sereď was a labor and transit camp built during World War II in the Slovak Republic. It was founded as a labor camp for the Jewish population in September 1941. In September 1944, it was taken over by units of the SS.

The Working Group was an underground Jewish organization in the Axis-aligned Slovak State during World War II. Led by Gisi Fleischmann and Rabbi Michael Dov Weissmandl, the Working Group rescued Jews from the Holocaust by gathering and disseminating information on the Holocaust in Poland, bribing and negotiating with German and Slovak officials, and smuggling valuables to Jews deported to Poland.

Karol Hochberg was a collaborator during the Holocaust, who led the "Department for Special Affairs" within the Ústredňa Židov, the Judenrat in Bratislava which was created by the Nazis to direct the Jewish community of Slovakia.

The Holocaust in Slovakia was the systematic dispossession, deportation, and murder of Jews in the Slovak Republic, a client state of Nazi Germany, during World War II. Out of 89,000 Jews in the country in 1940, an estimated 69,000 were murdered in the Holocaust.

The Ústredňa Židov was the Judenrat in Bratislava that was imposed on the Jewish community of the Axis-aligned state of Slovakia to implement Nazi orders during the Holocaust. It was formed on the advice of SS (Schutzstaffel) official Dieter Wisliceny; the first leader, Heinrich Schwartz, was removed after refusing to cooperate with Nazi demands and replaced by the ineffectual Arpad Sebestyen. The collaborationist Department of Special Affairs run by Karol Hochberg aided the authorities in confiscating Jewish property and collecting information that was used to arrest and deport Jews. Nevertheless, most of the ÚŽ members focused on providing opportunities for emigration and improving the social welfare of Jews remaining in Slovakia, although they were hampered by the dwindling resources of the community. In addition, the ÚŽ attempted to resist deportation by bribing Slovak officials, retraining Jews who had been expelled from their previous profession, and improving and expanding labor camps for Jews in Slovakia. The underground resistance organization that ran under its auspices, the Working Group, took over the ÚŽ leadership in December 1943. Since its formation in early 1942, the Working Group had used the ÚŽ as cover for its illegal rescue activities. After the German invasion of Slovakia in August 1944, the ÚŽ was disbanded and many of its members were arrested and deported to concentration camps.

The Kremnička and Nemecká massacres were a series of massacres committed between 5 November 1944 and 19 February 1945 in Kremnička and Nemecká, Slovakia by the Hlinka Guard Emergency Divisions and Einsatzkommando 14 following the suppression of the Slovak National Uprising. During the uprising, many Jews fled to Banská Bystrica, a partisan stronghold; when the town fell, Jews, actual or suspected Slovak partisans, and Romani people captured during roundups were temporarily held in the town's jail. The victims were then trucked to the murder sites at Kremnička and Nemecká, where they were shot. The majority of the 747 people shot at Kremnička were Jewish. Exact figures are not known for the Nemecká massacres, because the bodies were burned, but historians estimate a death toll of around 900, of whom most of the known victims were Jewish or Romani.

The Hlinka Guard Emergency Divisions or Flying Squads of the Hlinka Guard were Slovak paramilitary formations set up to counter the August 1944 Slovak National Uprising. They are best known for the role they played in murdering Jews, Romani people, and actual or suspected Slovak partisans in conjunction with Einsatzgruppe H, especially for their participation in the Kremnička massacre.

In August 1942, Jozef Tiso, president of the Slovak State and a Catholic priest, delivered a speech in Holíč, Slovakia, in which he defended the deportation of Jews from Slovakia. Referring to Jews as "parasites" and "the eternal enemy", Tiso claimed that their deportation was both economically necessary and congruent with Christian moral principles. The speech has been recognized as a key part of Tiso's moral legacy, emblematic of his complicity in the Holocaust.

Tibor Kováč (1905–1952) was an activist in the illegal Working Group resistance organization during the Holocaust in Slovakia; he also worked for the welfare department of the Ústredňa Židov (ÚŽ), the Judenrat in the Slovak State.

Presidential exemptions were granted by President of the Slovak State Jozef Tiso to individual Jews, exempting them from systematic persecution through anti-Jewish legislation introduced by Tiso's Jewish Code,, during the Holocaust. The exemptions were exchanged for arbitrary monetary fees. From an estimated 20,000 requests, 600 documented exemptions covering 1,000 people were granted, but only after 1942, when deportations to Auschwitz death camp had already stopped. Following the German invasion of 1944, when deportations resumed, all exemptions were nullified.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anton Vašek</span>

Anton Vašek (1905–1946) was the head of Department 14 in the Slovak State's Central Economic Office. He is known for accepting bribes in exchange for reducing deportation of Jews from Slovakia.

The Partisan Congress riots were attacks on Jews in Bratislava and other cities and towns in the autonomous Slovak region of Czechoslovakia between 1 and 6 August 1946. Nineteen people were injured, four seriously, in Bratislava alone.

Postwar anti-Jewish violence in Slovakia resulted in at least 36 deaths of Jews and more than 100 injuries between 1945 and 1948, according to research by the Polish historian Anna Cichopek. Overall, it was significantly less severe than in Poland. The causes of the violence included antisemitism and conflict over the restitution of property stolen from Jews during the Holocaust in Slovakia.

References

Citations

↑ Rajcan, Vadkerty & Hlavinka 2018, p. 843.
↑ Rajcan, Vadkerty & Hlavinka 2018, pp. 844–845.
↑ Bauer 1994, p. 69.
↑ Kamenec 2002, p. 130.
↑ Rothkirchen 1998, p. 641.
↑ Longerich 2010, p. 405.
1 2 Fatran 1996, pp. 98–99.
1 2 Vondráček 2013, p. 473.
1 2 3 Šindelářová 2013, p. 588.
↑ Fatran 1996, pp. 106–107.
1 2 3 Fatran 1996, p. 101.
↑ Šindelářová 2013, p. 582.
↑ Šindelářová 2013, pp. 587–588.
↑ Šindelářová 2013, p. 587.
↑ Fatran 1996, p. 106.
↑ Šindelářová 2013, pp. 588–589.
↑ Šindelářová 2013, p. 590.
1 2 Šindelářová 2013, p. 591.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Šindelářová 2013, p. 592.
↑ Šindelářová 2013, pp. 593–595.
↑ Appendix 2002, p. 297.
1 2 Šindelářová 2013, p. 594.
↑ Šindelářová 2013, p. 596.
1 2 Vondráček 2013, p. 475.
1 2 Hlavinka & Schvarc 2006, p. 88.
↑ USHMM 1994, p. 59.
1 2 3 Hutzelmann 2018, p. 43.
1 2 Šindelářová 2013, pp. 592, 594.
↑ Hlavinka & Schvarc 2006, pp. 84–85.
↑ Fatran 1996, p. 114-115.
↑ Hlavinka & Schvarc 2006, pp. 86–87.
1 2 Fatran 1996, pp. 107, 116.
↑ Fatran 1994, p. 192.
1 2 Šindelářová 2013, p. 589.
↑ Fatran 1996, pp. 107–108.
↑ Bauer 2002, p. 183.
↑ Fatran 1996, p. 116.
↑ Hutzelmann 2018, p. 44.
↑ Prečan 2011, pp. 227–228.
↑ Fatran 1996, p. 119.
↑ Rajcan, Vadkerty & Hlavinka 2018, p. 849.
1 2 3 Šindelářová 2013, pp. 593–594, 597–598.
↑ Vondráček 2013, pp. 473–474.

Bibliography

Długoborski, Wacław; Tóth, Dezider; Teresa, Świebocka; Mensfelt, Jarek, eds. (2002) [1992]. The Tragedy of the Jews of Slovakia 1938–1945: Slovakia and the "Final Solution of the Jewish Question". Translated by Mensfeld, Jarek. Oświęcim and Banská Bystrica: Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum and Museum of the Slovak National Uprising. ISBN 83-88526-15-4.
Bauer, Yehuda (1994). Jews for Sale?: Nazi-Jewish Negotiations, 1933–1945 . New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300059137.
Bauer, Yehuda (2002). Rethinking the Holocaust. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300093001.
Fatran, Gila (1994). "The "Working Group"". Holocaust and Genocide Studies. 8 (2). Translated by Greenwood, Naftali: 164–201. doi:10.1093/hgs/8.2.164. ISSN 8756-6583.
Fatran, Gila (1996). "Die Deportation der Juden aus der Slowakei 1944-1945" [The deportation of the Jews from Slovakia 1944–45]. Bohemia: Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Kultur der Böhmischen Länder (in German) (37): 98–119.
Hlavinka, Ján; Schvarc, Michal (2006). "Masová vražda na poli Krtičná pri Brezne: Jeden zo zločinov Einsatzkommanda 14 koncom roku 1944" [The mass murder at Krtična field near Brezno: One of the crimes committed by Einsatzkommando 14 in late 1944](PDF). Pamäť národa (in Slovak). 2006 (2). National Memory Institute: 84–88. ISSN 1336-6297.
Hutzelmann, Barbara (2018). "Slowakei". Slowakei, Rumänien und Bulgarien. Die Verfolgung und Ermordung der europäischen Juden durch das nationalsozialistische Deutschland 1933-1945 [ de ] (in German). Munich: Institut für Zeitgeschichte. ISBN 978-3-11-036500-9.
Kamenec, Ivan (2002) [1992]. "The Deportation of Jewish Citizens from Slovakia in 1942". In Długoborski, Wacław; Tóth, Dezider; Teresa, Świebocka; Mensfelt, Jarek (eds.). The Tragedy of the Jews of Slovakia 1938–1945: Slovakia and the "Final Solution of the Jewish Question". Translated by Mensfeld, Jarek. Oświęcim and Banská Bystrica: Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum and Museum of the Slovak National Uprising. pp. 111–139. ISBN 83-88526-15-4.
Longerich, Peter (2010). Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192804365.
Prečan, Vilém (2011). "The Slovak National Uprising: the most dramatic moment in the nation's history". In Teich, Mikuláš; Kováč, Dušan; Brown, Martin D. (eds.). Slovakia in History . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 206–228. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511780141. ISBN 978-1-139-49494-6.
Rajcan, Vanda; Vadkerty, Madeline; Hlavinka, Ján (2018). "Slovakia". In Megargee, Geoffrey P.; White, Joseph R.; Hecker, Mel (eds.). Camps and Ghettos under European Regimes Aligned with Nazi Germany. Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos. Vol. 3. Bloomington: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. ISBN 978-0-253-02373-5.
Rothkirchen, Livia (1998). "Czech and Slovak Wartime Jewish Leadership". In Berenbaum, Michael; Peck, Abraham (eds.). The Holocaust and history: the known, the unknown, the disputed, and the reexamined . Bloomington: Indiana University Press, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. pp. 629-646. ISBN 978-0253333742.
Šindelářová, Lenka (2013). "Einsatzgruppe H na povstaleckém Slovensku" (PDF). Soudobé dějiny (in Czech). XX (4): 582–603. doi:10.51134/sod.2013.039. ISSN 1210-7050.
Days of remembrance, April 3–10, 1994: fifty years ago, darkness before dawn : planning guide for commemorative programs. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. 1994.
Vondráček, Jan (2013). "Šindelářová, Lenka: Finale der Vernichtung. Die Einsatzgruppe H in der Slowakei 1944/1945". Bohemia: Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Kultur der Böhmischen Länder (in German). 53 (53): 473–476. doi:10.18447/BoZ-2013-3889. Archived from the original on 2020-02-27. Retrieved 2019-12-07.