Electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance

Last updated
Schematic Electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance EQCM1.jpg
Schematic Electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance

Electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance (EQCM) is the combination of electrochemistry and quartz crystal microbalance, which was generated in the eighties. [1] [2] [3] Typically, an EQCM device contains an electrochemical cells part and a QCM part. [4] Two electrodes on both sides of the quartz crystal serve two purposes. [4] Firstly, an alternating electric field is generated between the two electrodes for making up the oscillator. [4] Secondly, the electrode contacting electrolyte is used as a working electrode (WE), together with a counter electrode (CE) and a reference electrode (RE), in the potentiostatic circuit constituting the electrochemistry cell. [4] Thus, the working electrode of electrochemistry cell is the sensor of QCM. [2]

Contents

As a high mass sensitive in-situ measurement, EQCM is suitable to monitor the dynamic response of reactions at the electrode–solution interface at the applied potential. [5] When the potential of a QCM metal electrode changes, a negative or positive mass change is monitored depending on the ratio of anions adoption on the electrode surface and the dissolution of metal ions into solution. [5]

EQCM calibration

The EQCM sensitivity factor K can be calculated by combing the electrochemical cell measured charge density and QCM measured frequency shift. [6] The sensitivity factor is only valid when the mass change on the electrode is homogenous. [6] Otherwise, K is taken as the average sensitivity factor of the EQCM. [6]

[6]

where is the measured frequency shift (Hz), S is the quartz crystal active area (cm2), ρ is the density of quartz crystal, is the quartz crystal shear modulus and is the fundamental quartz crystal frequency. K is the intrinsic sensitivity factor of the EQCM. [6]

In a certain electrolyte solution, a metal film will deposited on the working electrode, which is the QCM sensor surface of QCM. [6]

[6]

The charge density () is involved in the electro-reduction of metal ions at a constant current , in a period of time (). [6]

The active areal mass density is calculated by

[6]

where is the atomic weight of deposited metal, z is the electrovalency, and F is the Faraday constant. [6]

The experimental sensitivity of the EQCM is calculated by combing and . [6]

[6]

EQCM application

Application of EQCM in electrosynthesis

EQCM can be used to monitor the chemical reaction occurring on the electrode, which offers the optimized reaction condition by comparing the influence factors during the synthesis process. [7] Some previous work has already investigated the polymerization process and charge transport properties, [8] polymer film growth on gold electrode surface, [9] and polymerization process [10] of polypyrrole and its derivatives. EQCM was used to study electro-polymerization process and doping/de-doping properties of polyaniline film on gold electrode surface as well. [11] To investigate the electrosynthesis process, sometimes it is necessary to combine other characterization technologies, such as using FTIR and EQCM to study the effect of different conditions on the formation of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) film structure, [12] and using EQCM, together with AFM, FTIR, EIS, to investigate the film formation process in the alkyl carbonate/lithium salt electrolyte solution on precious metal electrodes surfaces. [13]

Application of EQCM in electrodeposition and dissolution

EQCM is broadly used to study the deposition/dissolution process on electrode surface, such as the oscillation of electrode potential during Cu/CuO2 layered nanostructure electrodeposition, [14] deposition growth process of cobalt and nickel hexacyanoferrate in calcium nitrate and barium nitrate electrolyte solution, [15] and the Mg electrode electrochemical behaviour in various polar aprotic electrolyte solutions. [16] EQCM can be used as a powerful tool for corrosion and corrosion protection study, which is usually combined with other characterization technologies. [5] A previous work used EQCM and XPS studied Fe-17Cr-33Mo/ Fe-25Cr alloy electrodes mass changes during the potential sweep and potential step experiments in the passive potential region in an acidic and a basic electrolyte. [17] Another previous work used EQCM and SEM to study the influence of purine (PU) on Cu electrode corrosion and spontaneous dissolution in NaCl electrolyte solution. [18]

Application of EQCM in adsorption and desorption

EQCM has been used to study the self-assembled monolayers of long chain alkyl mercaptan [19] and alkanethiol and mercaptoalkanoic [20] on gold electrode surface.

Application of EQCM in polymer modified electrode

EQCM can be used to ideally modify polymer membranes together with other electrochemical measurements or surface characterization methods. [7] A team has used CV, UV-Vis, IR and EQCM studied irreversible changes of some polythiophenes in the electrochemical reduction process in acetonitrile. [21] Later on they used AFM and EQCM investigated growth of polypyrrole film in anionic surfactant micellar solution. [22] Then combing with CV, UV-Vis, FTIR, ESR, they used EQCM to study conductivity and magnetic properties of 3,4-dimethoxy and 3,4-ethylenedioxy-terminated polypyrrole and polythiophene. [23]

Application of EQCM in energy conversion and storage

EQCM can be used to study the process of adsorption and oxidation of fuel molecules on the electrode surface, and the effect of electrode catalyst or other additives on the electrode, such as assessment of polypyrrole internal Pt load in the polypyrrole/platinum composites fuel cell, [24] methanol fuel cell anodizing process, [25] and electrodeposition of cerium oxide suspended nanoparticles doped with gadolinium oxide under the ultrasound for Co/CeO2 and Ni/CeO2 composite fuel cells. [26] EQCM can also be used to study the energy storage performance and influencing factors of supercapacitors [27] and electrochemical capacitors. For example, EQCM is used to study the ion movement gauge of conductive polymer of capacitor on cathode. [28] Some work studied the EQCM application in solar energy, which is mostly additive and thin film material related, for instance, using EQCM to study the electrochemical deposition process and stability of Co-Pi oxygen evolution catalyst for solar storage. [29]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electrochemistry</span> Branch of chemistry

Electrochemistry is the branch of physical chemistry concerned with the relationship between electrical potential difference, as a measurable and quantitative phenomenon, and identifiable chemical change, with the potential difference as an outcome of a particular chemical change, or vice versa. These reactions involve electrons moving via an electronically-conducting phase between electrodes separated by an ionically conducting and electronically insulating electrolyte.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electrode</span> Electrical conductor used to make contact with nonmetallic parts of a circuit

An electrode is an electrical conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit. Electrodes are essential parts of batteries that can consist of a variety of materials depending on the type of battery.

A quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) measures a mass variation per unit area by measuring the change in frequency of a quartz crystal resonator. The resonance is disturbed by the addition or removal of a small mass due to oxide growth/decay or film deposition at the surface of the acoustic resonator. The QCM can be used under vacuum, in gas phase and more recently in liquid environments. It is useful for monitoring the rate of deposition in thin film deposition systems under vacuum. In liquid, it is highly effective at determining the affinity of molecules to surfaces functionalized with recognition sites. Larger entities such as viruses or polymers are investigated as well. QCM has also been used to investigate interactions between biomolecules. Frequency measurements are easily made to high precision ; hence, it is easy to measure mass densities down to a level of below 1 μg/cm2. In addition to measuring the frequency, the dissipation factor is often measured to help analysis. The dissipation factor is the inverse quality factor of the resonance, Q−1 = w/fr ; it quantifies the damping in the system and is related to the sample's viscoelastic properties.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chronoamperometry</span>

Chronoamperometry is an electrochemical technique in which the potential of the working electrode is stepped and the resulting current from faradaic processes occurring at the electrode is monitored as a function of time. The functional relationship between current response and time is measured after applying single or double potential step to the working electrode of the electrochemical system. Limited information about the identity of the electrolyzed species can be obtained from the ratio of the peak oxidation current versus the peak reduction current. However, as with all pulsed techniques, chronoamperometry generates high charging currents, which decay exponentially with time as any RC circuit. The Faradaic current - which is due to electron transfer events and is most often the current component of interest - decays as described in the Cottrell equation. In most electrochemical cells this decay is much slower than the charging decay-cells with no supporting electrolyte are notable exceptions. Most commonly a three electrode system is used. Since the current is integrated over relatively longer time intervals, chronoamperometry gives a better signal to noise ratio in comparison to other amperometric techniques.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electrogravimetry</span>

Electrogravimetry is a method used to separate and quantify ions of a substance, usually a metal. In this process, the analyte solution is electrolyzed. Electrochemical reduction causes the analyte to be deposited on the cathode. The mass of the cathode is determined before and after the experiment, and the difference is used to calculate the mass of analyte in the original solution. Controlling the potential of the electrode is important to ensure that only the metal being analyzed will be deposited on the electrode.

The Sauerbrey equation was developed by the German Günter Sauerbrey in 1959, while working on his doctoral thesis at the Technical University of Berlin, Germany. It is a method for correlating changes in the oscillation frequency of a piezoelectric crystal with the mass deposited on it. He simultaneously developed a method for measuring the characteristic frequency and its changes by using the crystal as the frequency determining component of an oscillator circuit. His method continues to be used as the primary tool in quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) experiments for conversion of frequency to mass and is valid in nearly all applications.

A polymer-based battery uses organic materials instead of bulk metals to form a battery. Currently accepted metal-based batteries pose many challenges due to limited resources, negative environmental impact, and the approaching limit of progress. Redox active polymers are attractive options for electrodes in batteries due to their synthetic availability, high-capacity, flexibility, light weight, low cost, and low toxicity. Recent studies have explored how to increase efficiency and reduce challenges to push polymeric active materials further towards practicality in batteries. Many types of polymers are being explored, including conductive, non-conductive, and radical polymers. Batteries with a combination of electrodes are easier to test and compare to current metal-based batteries, however batteries with both a polymer cathode and anode are also a current research focus. Polymer-based batteries, including metal/polymer electrode combinations, should be distinguished from metal-polymer batteries, such as a lithium polymer battery, which most often involve a polymeric electrolyte, as opposed to polymeric active materials.

Heinz Gerischer was a German scientist. He was the thesis advisor of future Nobel laureate Gerhard Ertl.

In electrochemistry, ITIES is an electrochemical interface that is either polarisable or polarised. An ITIES is polarisable if one can change the Galvani potential difference, or in other words the difference of inner potentials between the two adjacent phases, without noticeably changing the chemical composition of the respective phases. An ITIES system is polarised if the distribution of the different charges and redox species between the two phases determines the Galvani potential difference.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pseudocapacitor</span>

Pseudocapacitors store electrical energy faradaically by electron charge transfer between electrode and electrolyte. This is accomplished through electrosorption, reduction-oxidation reactions, and intercalation processes, termed pseudocapacitance.

Within surface science, a quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) is a type of quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) based on the ring-down technique. It is used in interfacial acoustic sensing. Its most common application is the determination of a film thickness in a liquid environment. It can be used to investigate further properties of the sample, most notably the layer's softness.

Water oxidation is one of the half reactions of water splitting:

Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) is a technique within the broader class of scanning probe microscopy (SPM) that is used to measure the local electrochemical behavior of liquid/solid, liquid/gas and liquid/liquid interfaces. Initial characterization of the technique was credited to University of Texas electrochemist, Allen J. Bard, in 1989. Since then, the theoretical underpinnings have matured to allow widespread use of the technique in chemistry, biology and materials science. Spatially resolved electrochemical signals can be acquired by measuring the current at an ultramicroelectrode (UME) tip as a function of precise tip position over a substrate region of interest. Interpretation of the SECM signal is based on the concept of diffusion-limited current. Two-dimensional raster scan information can be compiled to generate images of surface reactivity and chemical kinetics.

A biotransducer is the recognition-transduction component of a biosensor system. It consists of two intimately coupled parts; a bio-recognition layer and a physicochemical transducer, which acting together converts a biochemical signal to an electronic or optical signal. The bio-recognition layer typically contains an enzyme or another binding protein such as antibody. However, oligonucleotide sequences, sub-cellular fragments such as organelles and receptor carrying fragments, single whole cells, small numbers of cells on synthetic scaffolds, or thin slices of animal or plant tissues, may also comprise the bio-recognition layer. It gives the biosensor selectivity and specificity. The physicochemical transducer is typically in intimate and controlled contact with the recognition layer. As a result of the presence and biochemical action of the analyte, a physico-chemical change is produced within the biorecognition layer that is measured by the physicochemical transducer producing a signal that is proportionate to the concentration of the analyte. The physicochemical transducer may be electrochemical, optical, electronic, gravimetric, pyroelectric or piezoelectric. Based on the type of biotransducer, biosensors can be classified as shown to the right.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Surface chemistry of neural implants</span>

As with any material implanted in the body, it is important to minimize or eliminate foreign body response and maximize effectual integration. Neural implants have the potential to increase the quality of life for patients with such disabilities as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, epilepsy, depression, and migraines. With the complexity of interfaces between a neural implant and brain tissue, adverse reactions such as fibrous tissue encapsulation that hinder the functionality, occur. Surface modifications to these implants can help improve the tissue-implant interface, increasing the lifetime and effectiveness of the implant.

Electrochemical AFM (EC-AFM) is a particular type of Scanning probe microscopy (SPM), which combines the classical Atomic force microscopy (AFM) together with electrochemical measurements. EC-AFM allows to perform in-situ AFM measurements in an electrochemical cell, in order to investigate the actual changes in the electrode surface morphology during electrochemical reactions. The solid-liquid interface is thus investigated. This technique was developed for the first time in 1996 by Kouzeki et al., who studied amorphous and polycrystalline thin films of Naphthalocyanine on Indium tin oxide in a solution of 0.1 M Potassium chloride (KCl). Unlike the Electrochemical scanning tunneling microscope, previously developed by Itaya and Tomita in 1988, the tip is non-conductive and it is easily steered in a liquid environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Doron Aurbach</span> Israeli electrochemist, materials and surface scientist

Doron Aurbach is an Israeli electrochemist, materials and surface scientist.

Electro-oxidation(EO), also known as anodic oxidation or electrochemical oxidation, is a technique used for wastewater treatment, mainly for industrial effluents, and is a type of advanced oxidation process (AOP). The most general layout comprises two electrodes, operating as anode and cathode, connected to a power source. When an energy input and sufficient supporting electrolyte are provided to the system, strong oxidizing species are formed, which interact with the contaminants and degrade them. The refractory compounds are thus converted into reaction intermediates and, ultimately, into water and CO2 by complete mineralization.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kristina Edström</span> Swedish inorganic chemist

Kristina Edström is a Swedish Professor of Inorganic Chemistry at Uppsala University. She also serves as Head of the Ångström Advanced Battery Centre (ÅABC) and has previously been both Vice Dean for Research at the Faculty of Science and Technology and Chair of the STandUp for Energy research programme.

Calcium (ion) batteries are energy storage and delivery technologies (i.e., electro–chemical energy storage) that employ calcium ions (cations), Ca2+, as the active charge carrier in the electrolytes as well as in the electrodes (anode and cathode). Calcium (ion) batteries remain an active area of research, with studies and work persisting in the discovery and development of electrodes and electrolytes that enable stable, long-term battery operation.

References

  1. ↑ Schumacher, R.; Borges, G.; Kanazawa, K.K. (November 1985). "The quartz microbalance: A sensitive tool to probe surface reconstructions on gold electrodes in liquid". Surface Science Letters. 163 (1): L621–L626. Bibcode:1985SurSL.163L.621S. doi:10.1016/0167-2584(85)90839-4. ISSN   0167-2584.
  2. 1 2 Bruckenstein, Stanley; Shay, Michael (June 1985). "An in situ weighing study of the mechanism for the formation of the adsorbed oxygen monolayer at a gold electrode". Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Interfacial Electrochemistry. 188 (1–2): 131–136. doi:10.1016/s0022-0728(85)80057-7. ISSN   0022-0728.
  3. ↑ Kanazawa, K. Keiji.; Gordon, Joseph G. (July 1985). "Frequency of a quartz microbalance in contact with liquid". Analytical Chemistry. 57 (8): 1770–1771. doi:10.1021/ac00285a062. ISSN   0003-2700.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Streinz, Christopher C. (1995). "The Effect of Current and Nickel Nitrate Concentration on the Deposition of Nickel Hydroxide Films". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 142 (4): 1084–1089. Bibcode:1995JElS..142.1084S. doi:10.1149/1.2044134. ISSN   0013-4651.
  5. 1 2 3 Schmutz, P.; Landolt, D. (December 1999). "Electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance study of the transient response of passive Fe–25Cr alloy". Electrochimica Acta. 45 (6): 899–911. doi:10.1016/s0013-4686(99)00293-5. ISSN   0013-4686.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Gabrielli, C. (1991). "Calibration of the Electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 138 (9): 2657–2660. Bibcode:1991JElS..138.2657G. doi:10.1149/1.2086033. ISSN   0013-4651.
  7. 1 2 yan, xiao (Nov 2018). "Application of Electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance". Progress in Chemistry. 30 (11): 1701.
  8. ↑ Baker, Charles K.; Qiu, Yong Jian; Reynolds, John R. (May 1991). "Electrochemically-induced charge and mass transport in polypyrrole/poly(styrene sulfonate) molecular composites". The Journal of Physical Chemistry. 95 (11): 4446–4452. doi:10.1021/j100164a053. ISSN   0022-3654.
  9. ↑ Chung, Sun-Mi; Paik, Woon-kie; Yeo, In-Hyeong (Jan 1997). "A study on the initial growth of polypyrrole on a gold electrode by electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance". Synthetic Metals. 84 (1–3): 155–156. doi:10.1016/s0379-6779(97)80690-x. ISSN   0379-6779.
  10. ↑ Bose, C. S. C.; Basak, S.; Rajeshwar, K. (Nov 1992). "Electrochemistry of poly(pyrrole chloride) films: a study of polymerization efficiency, ion transport during redox and doping level assay by electrochemical quartz crystal microgravimetry, pH and ion-selective electrode measurements". The Journal of Physical Chemistry. 96 (24): 9899–9906. doi:10.1021/j100203a059. ISSN   0022-3654.
  11. ↑ Baba, Akira; Tian, Shengjun; Stefani, Fernando; Xia, Chuanjun; Wang, Zhehui; Advincula, Rigoberto C; Johannsmann, Diethelm; Knoll, Wolfgang (Jan 2004). "Electropolymerization and doping/dedoping properties of polyaniline thin films as studied by electrochemical-surface plasmon spectroscopy and by the quartz crystal microbalance". Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry. 562 (1): 95–103. doi:10.1016/j.jelechem.2003.08.012. ISSN   1572-6657.
  12. ↑ Kvarnström, C.; Neugebauer, H.; Blomquist, S.; Ahonen, H.J.; Kankare, J.; Ivaska, A. (April 1999). "In situ spectroelectrochemical characterization of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)". Electrochimica Acta. 44 (16): 2739–2750. doi:10.1016/s0013-4686(98)00405-8. ISSN   0013-4686.
  13. ↑ Aurbach, D.; Moshkovich, M.; Cohen, Y.; Schechter, A. (April 1999). "The Study of Surface Film Formation on Noble-Metal Electrodes in Alkyl Carbonates/Li Salt Solutions, Using Simultaneous in Situ AFM, EQCM, FTIR, and EIS". Langmuir. 15 (8): 2947–2960. doi:10.1021/la981275j. ISSN   0743-7463.
  14. ↑ Bohannan, Eric W.; Huang, Ling-Yuang; Miller, F. Scott; Shumsky, Mark G.; Switzer, Jay A. (Feb 1999). "In Situ Electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance Study of Potential Oscillations during the Electrodeposition of Cu/Cu2O Layered Nanostructures". Langmuir. 15 (3): 813–818. doi:10.1021/la980825a. ISSN   0743-7463.
  15. ↑ Chen, S.-M. (March 2002). "Preparation, characterization, and electrocatalytic oxidation properties of iron, cobalt, nickel, and indium hexacyanoferrate". Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry. 521 (1–2): 29–52. doi:10.1016/s0022-0728(02)00677-0. ISSN   1572-6657.
  16. ↑ Lu, Z.; Schechter, A.; Moshkovich, M.; Aurbach, D. (May 1999). "On the electrochemical behavior of magnesium electrodes in polar aprotic electrolyte solutions". Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry. 466 (2): 203–217. doi:10.1016/s0022-0728(99)00146-1. ISSN   1572-6657.
  17. ↑ Schmutz, P; Landolt, D (November 1999). "In-situ microgravimetric studies of passive alloys: potential sweep and potential step experiments with Fe–25Cr and Fe–17Cr–33Mo in acid and alkaline solution". Corrosion Science. 41 (11): 2143–2163. doi:10.1016/s0010-938x(99)00038-4. ISSN   0010-938X.
  18. ↑ Scendo, M. (Feb 2007). "The effect of purine on the corrosion of copper in chloride solutions". Corrosion Science. 49 (2): 373–390. doi:10.1016/j.corsci.2006.06.022. ISSN   0010-938X.
  19. ↑ Schneider, Thomas W.; Buttry, Daniel A. (Dec 1993). "Electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance studies of adsorption and desorption of self-assembled monolayers of alkyl thiols on gold". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 115 (26): 12391–12397. doi:10.1021/ja00079a021. ISSN   0002-7863.
  20. ↑ Kawaguchi, Toshikazu; Yasuda, Hiroaki; Shimazu, Katsuaki; Porter, Marc D. (Dec 2000). "Electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance Investigation of the Reductive Desorption of Self-Assembled Monolayers of Alkanethiols and Mercaptoalkanoic Acids on Au". Langmuir. 16 (25): 9830–9840. doi:10.1021/la000756b. ISSN   0743-7463.
  21. ↑ Zotti, G.; Schiavon, G.; Zecchin, S. (June 1995). "Irreversible processes in the electrochemical reduction of polythiophenes. Chemical modifications of the polymer and charge-trapping phenomena". Synthetic Metals. 72 (3): 275–281. doi:10.1016/0379-6779(95)03280-0. ISSN   0379-6779.
  22. ↑ Naoi, Katsuhiko (1995). "Electrochemistry of Surfactant-Doped Polypyrrole Film(I): Formation of Columnar Structure by Electropolymerization". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 142 (2): 417–422. Bibcode:1995JElS..142..417N. doi:10.1149/1.2044042. ISSN   0013-4651.
  23. ↑ Zotti, Gianni; Zecchin, Sandro; Schiavon, Gilberto; Groenendaal, L. “Bert” (Oct 2000). "Conductive and Magnetic Properties of 3,4-Dimethoxy- and 3,4-Ethylenedioxy-Capped Polypyrrole and Polythiophene". Chemistry of Materials. 12 (10): 2996–3005. doi:10.1021/cm000400l. ISSN   0897-4756.
  24. ↑ Schmidt, V. M.; Stimming, U. (1996), "Fuel Cell Systems for Vehicle Applications", New Promising Electrochemical Systems for Rechargeable Batteries, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 233–246, doi:10.1007/978-94-009-1643-2_17, ISBN   978-94-010-7235-9
  25. ↑ WU, Q; ZHEN, C; ZHOU, Z; SUN, S (Feb 2008). "Electrochemical Behavior of Irreversibly Adsorbed Sb on Au Electrode". Acta Physico-Chimica Sinica. 24 (2): 201–204. doi:10.1016/s1872-1508(08)60010-8. ISSN   1872-1508.
  26. ↑ Argirusis, Chr.; Matić, S.; Schneider, O. (Oct 2008). "An EQCM study of ultrasonically assisted electrodeposition of Co/CeO2and Ni/CeO2composites for fuel cell applications". Physica Status Solidi A. 205 (10): 2400–2404. Bibcode:2008PSSAR.205.2400A. doi:10.1002/pssa.200779409. ISSN   1862-6300. S2CID   123082512.
  27. ↑ Levi, Mikhael D.; Salitra, Grigory; Levy, Naomi; Aurbach, Doron; Maier, Joachim (2009-10-18). "Application of a quartz-crystal microbalance to measure ionic fluxes in microporous carbons for energy storage". Nature Materials. 8 (11): 872–875. Bibcode:2009NatMa...8..872L. doi:10.1038/nmat2559. ISSN   1476-1122. PMID   19838184.
  28. ↑ Farrington, G.C. (1991-07-01). "Polymeric electrolytes for ambient temperature lithium batteries". doi:10.2172/5176162. S2CID   94438069.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  29. ↑ Irshad, Ahamed; Munichandraiah, Nookala (2013-04-11). "EQCM Investigation of Electrochemical Deposition and Stability of Co–Pi Oxygen Evolution Catalyst of Solar Energy Storage". The Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 117 (16): 8001–8008. doi:10.1021/jp312752q. ISSN   1932-7447.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.