End user

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Nurses as information systems end users Nurses in a nurses' station, USA 1987.jpg
Nurses as information systems end users

In product development, an end user (sometimes end-user) [a] is a person who ultimately uses or is intended to ultimately use a product. [1] [2] [3] The end user stands in contrast to users who support or maintain the product, [4] such as sysops, system administrators, database administrators, [5] information technology (IT) experts, software professionals, and computer technicians. End users typically do not possess the technical understanding or skill of the product designers, [6] a fact easily overlooked and forgotten by designers: leading to features creating low customer satisfaction. [2] In information technology, end users are not customers in the usual sense—they are typically employees of the customer. [7] For example, if a large retail corporation buys a software package for its employees to use, even though the large retail corporation was the customer that purchased the software, the end users are the employees of the company, who will use the software at work.

Contents

Context

End users are one of the three major factors contributing to the complexity of managing information systems. The end user's position has changed from a position in the 1950s (where end users did not interact with the mainframe; computer experts programmed and ran the mainframe) to one in the 2010s where the end user collaborates with and advises the management information system and Information Technology department about his or her needs regarding the system or product. This raises new questions, such as: Who manages each resource?, What is the role of the MIS Department? and What is the optimal relationship between the end-user and the MIS Department? [8]

Empowerment

The concept of end-user first surfaced in the late 1980s and has since then raised many debates. One challenge was the goal to give both the user more freedom, by adding advanced features and functions (for more advanced users) and adding more constraints (to prevent a neophyte user from accidentally erasing an entire company's database). [9] This phenomenon appeared as a consequence of consumerization of computer products and software. In the 1960s and 1970s, computer users were generally programming experts and computer scientists. However, in the 1980s, and especially in the mid-to-late 1990s and the early 2000s, everyday, regular people began using computer devices and software for personal and work use. IT specialists needed to cope with this trend in various ways. In the 2010s, users now want to have more control over the systems they operate, to solve their own problems, and be able to customize the systems to suit their needs. The apparent drawbacks were the risk of corruption of the systems and data the users had control of, due to their lack of knowledge on how to properly operate the computer/software at an advanced level. [10]

For companies to appeal to the user, it took primary care to accommodate and think of end-users in their new products, software launches, and updates. A partnership needed to be formed between the programmer-developers and the everyday end users so both parties could maximize the use of the products effectively. [11] A major example of the public's effects on end user's requirements were the public libraries. They have been affected by new technologies in many ways, ranging from the digitalization of their card catalog, the shift to e-books, e-journals, and offering online services. Libraries have had to undergo many changes in order to cope, [12] including training existing librarians in Web 2.0 and database skills, to hiring IT and software experts.

End user documentation

1980s-era personal computer with end-user documentation Pravetz 8d with manual.png
1980s-era personal computer with end-user documentation
NATO official and Afghan colonel going through end-user documentation to transfer control of barracks to the Afghan army in 2009 120625-F-UZ487-014 (7567150378).jpg
NATO official and Afghan colonel going through end-user documentation to transfer control of barracks to the Afghan army in 2009

The aim of end user documentation (e.g., manuals and guidebooks for products) is to help the user understand certain aspects of the systems and to provide all the answers in one place. [13] A lot of documentation is available for users to help them understand and properly use a certain product or service. Due to the fact that the information available is usually very vast, inconsistent or ambiguous (e.g., a user manual with hundreds of pages, including guidance on using advanced features), many users suffer from an information overload. Therefore, they become unable to take the right course of action. This needs to be kept in mind when developing products and services and the necessary documentation for them. [14]

Well-written documentation is needed for a user to reference. Some key aspects of such a documentation are: [13]

At times users do not refer to the documentation available to them due to various reasons, ranging from finding the manual too large or due to not understanding the jargon and acronyms it contains. In other cases, the users may find that the manual makes too many assumptions about a user having pre-existing knowledge of computers and software, and thus the directions may skip over these initial steps (from the users' point of view). Thus, frustrated user may report false problems because of their inability to understand the software or computer hardware. This in turn causes the company to focus on perceived problems instead of focusing on the actual problems of the software. [15]

Security

In the 2010s, there is a lot of emphasis on user's security and privacy. With the increasing role that computers are playing in people's lives, people are carrying laptops and smartphones with them and using them for scheduling appointments, making online purchases using credit cards and searching for information. These activities can potentially be observed by companies, governments or individuals, which can lead to breaches of privacy, identity theft, by, blackmailing and other serious concerns. As well, many businesses, ranging from small business startups to huge corporations are using computers and software to design, manufacture, market and sell their products and services, and businesses also use computers and software in their back office processes (e.g., human resources, payroll, etc.). As such, it is important for people and organizations to need know that the information and data they are storing, using, or sending over computer networks or storing on computer systems is secure.

However, developers of software and hardware are faced with many challenges in developing a system that can be both user friendly, accessible 24/7 on almost any device and be truly secure. Security leaks happen, even to individuals and organizations that have security measures in place to protect their data and information (e.g., firewalls, encryption, strong passwords). The complexities of creating such a secure system come from the fact that the behaviour of humans is not always rational or predictable. Even in a very-well secured computer system, a malicious individual can telephone a worker and pretend to be a private investigator working for the software company, and ask for the individual's password, a dishonest process called phishing. As well, even with a well-secured system, if a worker decides to put the company's electronic files on a USB drive to take them home to work on them over the weekend (against many companies' policies), and then loses this USB drive, the company's data may be compromised. Therefore, developers need to make systems that are intuitive to the user in order to have information security and system security. [16]

Another key step to end user security is informing the people and employees about the security threats and what they can do to avoid them or protect themselves and the organization. Clearly underlining, the capabilities and risks makes users more aware and informed whilst they are using the products.

Some situations that could put the user at risk are:

Even if the security measures in place are strong, the choices the user makes and his/her behavior have a major impact on how secure their information really is. Therefore, an informed user is one who can protect and achieve the best security out of the system they use. [17] Because of the importance of end-user security and the impact it can have on organizations the UK government set out a guidance for the public sector, to help civil servants learn how to be more security aware when using government networks and computers. While this is targeted to a certain sector, this type of educational effort can be informative to any type of user. This helps developers meet security norms and end users be aware of the risks involved. [18] Reimers and Andersson have conducted a number of studies on end-user security habits and found that the same type of repeated education/training in security best practices can have a marked effect on the perception of compliance with good end-user network security habits, especially concerning malware and ransomware. [19]

Law

In end-user license agreements, the end user is distinguished from the value-added reseller, who installs the software or the organization that purchases and manages the software. [20] [ failed verification ]

Certain American defense-related products and information require export approval from the United States Government under the International Traffic in Arms Regulations and Export Administration Regulations. [21] In order to obtain a license to export, the exporter must specify both the end user and the end use for undertaking an end-user certificate. [22]

In the UK, there exist documents that accompany licenses for products named in the end user undertaking statements.[ clarification needed ] [23]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ When used as an adjective, end-user is generally hyphenated; when used as a noun, end user is left unhyphenated. Thus, "good end-user experience" versus "good experience to the end user".

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Computer security</span> Protection of computer systems from information disclosure, theft or damage

Computer security is the protection of computer software, systems and networks from threats that can lead to unauthorized information disclosure, theft or damage to hardware, software, or data, as well as from the disruption or misdirection of the services they provide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Password</span> Text used for user authentication to prove identity

A password, sometimes called a passcode, is secret data, typically a string of characters, usually used to confirm a user's identity. Traditionally, passwords were expected to be memorized, but the large number of password-protected services that a typical individual accesses can make memorization of unique passwords for each service impractical. Using the terminology of the NIST Digital Identity Guidelines, the secret is held by a party called the claimant while the party verifying the identity of the claimant is called the verifier. When the claimant successfully demonstrates knowledge of the password to the verifier through an established authentication protocol, the verifier is able to infer the claimant's identity.

Software documentation is written text or illustration that accompanies computer software or is embedded in the source code. The documentation either explains how the software operates or how to use it, and may mean different things to people in different roles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Authentication</span> Act of proving an assertion

Authentication is the act of proving an assertion, such as the identity of a computer system user. In contrast with identification, the act of indicating a person or thing's identity, authentication is the process of verifying that identity. It might involve validating personal identity documents, verifying the authenticity of a website with a digital certificate, determining the age of an artifact by carbon dating, or ensuring that a product or document is not counterfeit.

Keystroke logging, often referred to as keylogging or keyboard capturing, is the action of recording (logging) the keys struck on a keyboard, typically covertly, so that a person using the keyboard is unaware that their actions are being monitored. Data can then be retrieved by the person operating the logging program. A keystroke recorder or keylogger can be either software or hardware.

Dynamic DNS (DDNS) is a method of automatically updating a name server in the Domain Name System (DNS), often in real time, with the active DDNS configuration of its configured hostnames, addresses or other information.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Point of sale</span> Time and place where a retail transaction is completed

The point of sale (POS) or point of purchase (POP) is the time and place at which a retail transaction is completed. At the point of sale, the merchant calculates the amount owed by the customer, indicates that amount, may prepare an invoice for the customer, and indicates the options for the customer to make payment. It is also the point at which a customer makes a payment to the merchant in exchange for goods or after provision of a service. After receiving payment, the merchant may issue a receipt, as proof of transaction, which is usually printed but can also be dispensed with or sent electronically.

A backdoor is a typically covert method of bypassing normal authentication or encryption in a computer, product, embedded device, or its embodiment. Backdoors are most often used for securing remote access to a computer, or obtaining access to plaintext in cryptosystems. From there it may be used to gain access to privileged information like passwords, corrupt or delete data on hard drives, or transfer information within autoschediastic networks.

An application program is a computer program designed to carry out a specific task other than one relating to the operation of the computer itself, typically to be used by end-users. Word processors, media players, and accounting software are examples. The collective noun "application software" refers to all applications collectively. The other principal classifications of software are system software, relating to the operation of the computer, and utility software ("utilities").

In cryptanalysis and computer security, password cracking is the process of guessing passwords protecting a computer system. A common approach is to repeatedly try guesses for the password and to check them against an available cryptographic hash of the password. Another type of approach is password spraying, which is often automated and occurs slowly over time in order to remain undetected, using a list of common passwords.

Network security consists of the policies, processes and practices adopted to prevent, detect and monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or denial of a computer network and network-accessible resources. Network security involves the authorization of access to data in a network, which is controlled by the network administrator. Users choose or are assigned an ID and password or other authenticating information that allows them access to information and programs within their authority. Network security covers a variety of computer networks, both public and private, that are used in everyday jobs: conducting transactions and communications among businesses, government agencies and individuals. Networks can be private, such as within a company, and others which might be open to public access. Network security is involved in organizations, enterprises, and other types of institutions. It does as its title explains: it secures the network, as well as protecting and overseeing operations being done. The most common and simple way of protecting a network resource is by assigning it a unique name and a corresponding password.

Internet security is a branch of computer security. It encompasses the Internet, browser security, web site security, and network security as it applies to other applications or operating systems as a whole. Its objective is to establish rules and measures to use against attacks over the Internet. The Internet is an inherently insecure channel for information exchange, with high risk of intrusion or fraud, such as phishing, online viruses, trojans, ransomware and worms.

A remote, online, or managed backup service, sometimes marketed as cloud backup or backup-as-a-service, is a service that provides users with a system for the backup, storage, and recovery of computer files. Online backup providers are companies that provide this type of service to end users. Such backup services are considered a form of cloud computing.

Software rot is the degradation, deterioration, or loss of the use or performance of software over time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">System Support Program</span> Operating system for IBM minicomputers

System Support Program (SSP) was the operating system of the IBM System/34 and System/36 minicomputers. SSP was a command-based operating system released in 1977.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Accounting software</span> Computer program that maintains account books

Accounting software is a computer program that maintains account books on computers, including recording transactions and account balances. It may depend on virtual thinking. Depending on the purpose, the software can manage budgets, perform accounting tasks for multiple currencies, perform payroll and customer relationship management, and prepare financial reporting. Work to have accounting functions be implemented on computers goes back to the earliest days of electronic data processing. Over time, accounting software has revolutionized from supporting basic accounting operations to performing real-time accounting and supporting financial processing and reporting. Cloud accounting software was first introduced in 2011, and it allowed the performance of all accounting functions through the internet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">User (computing)</span> Person who uses a computer or network service

A user is a person who utilizes a computer or network service. A user often has a user account and is identified to the system by a username . Some software products provide services to other systems and have no direct end users.

Secure USB flash drives protect the data stored on them from access by unauthorized users. USB flash drive products have been on the market since 2000, and their use is increasing exponentially. As businesses have increased demand for these drives, manufacturers are producing faster devices with greater data storage capacities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Multi-factor authentication</span> Method of computer access control

Multi-factor authentication is an electronic authentication method in which a user is granted access to a website or application only after successfully presenting two or more pieces of evidence to an authentication mechanism. MFA protects personal data—which may include personal identification or financial assets—from being accessed by an unauthorized third party that may have been able to discover, for example, a single password.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Netwrix</span>

Netwrix is a Frisco, Texas–based private IT security software company that develops software to help companies identify and secure sensitive data and assist with compliance auditing. After eight acquisitions the company's team geographically expanded to Latin America, UK, Germany, France, Asia, US as well as other countries. The company's flagship products are Netwrix Auditor and Netwrix Enterprise Auditor that help information security and governance professionals manage sensitive, regulated and business-critical data.

References

  1. ↑ Dictionary of Computer and Internet Terms. Barron's Business Guides (8 ed.). Hauppauge, New York: Barron's Educational Series. 2003. p. 171. ISBN   978-0764121661. OCLC   50480181. the person ultimately intended to use a product
  2. 1 2 Howe, Denis (1997-03-29). "FOLDOC entry for "end-user"". foldoc.org. London . Retrieved 2015-06-28. The person who uses a computer application, as opposed to those who developed or it.
  3. ↑ Legal Information Institute. "U.S. Code § 8541 - Definitions". www.law.cornell.edu. Ithaca, New York: Cornell Law School . Retrieved 2015-06-28. The term "end-user", with respect to a good, service, or technology, means the person that receives and ultimately uses the good, service, or technology.
  4. ↑ FIPS Task Group on Database Management System Standards (1979). Recommendations for Database Management System Standards. Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards. p. 58. OCLC   6862471. The end users are persons who perform the application functions. End users include "parametric" and generalized function users, but they are not system support personnel.
  5. ↑ Shepherd, John C. (1990). Database Management: Theory and Application. Homewood, Illinois: Irwin Professional Publishing. p. 20. ISBN   978-0256078299. OCLC   20491157.
  6. ↑ O'Neil, Patrick (1994). Database Principles Programming Performance . San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. pp.  4–5. ISBN   978-1558602199. OCLC   30777731. One of the most important features of a DBMS is that relatively inexperienced users, called end users, are empowered to retrieve information from the database. The user poses a query at the terminal keyboard, requesting the database system to display the answer on a terminal screen or on a printed sheet.
  7. ↑ Chrissis, Mary Beth; Konrad, Mike; Shrum, Sandy (2011). CMMI for Development: Guidelines for Process Integration and Product Improvement . Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Addison-Wesley. p.  581. ISBN   9780321711502. OCLC   884168009. A party that ultimately uses a delivered product or that receives the benefit of a delivered service. (See also "customer".) End users may or may not also be customers (who can establish and accept agreements or authorize payments).
  8. ↑ Rainer Jr., R. Kelly; Prince, Brad; Cegielski, Casey (2014). Introduction to Information Systems. Supporting and Transforming Businesses (Fifth ed.). Wiley. pp. 12–13. ISBN   978-1-118-67436-9.
  9. ↑ LUPTON, CAROL (1998-02-01). "User Empowerment or Family Self-Reliance? The Family Group Conference Model". The British Journal of Social Work. 28 (1): 107–128. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjsw.a011302. JSTOR   23714792.
  10. ↑ "Can IT Cope With Empowered End-Users?". Forbes. Retrieved 2015-11-03.
  11. ↑ Kappelman, Leon A; Guynes, Carl Stephen (1995). "End-user training & empowerment". Journal of Systems Management. 46 (5). Cleveland: 36. ProQuest   199819277.
  12. ↑ Seidler-de Alwis, Ragna; Fühles-Ubach, Simone (2010). "Success factors for the future of information centres, commercial and public libraries: a study from Germany". Interlending & Document Supply. 38 (3): 183–188. doi:10.1108/02641611011072387.
  13. 1 2 "10 Examples of Great End User Documentation". blog.screensteps.com. Retrieved 2015-11-03.[ self-published source? ]
  14. ↑ Strother, Judith B.; Ulijn, Jan M.; Fazal, Zohra (2012-01-01). Strother, Judith B.; Ulijn, Jan M.; Fazal, Zohra (eds.). Information Overload: An International Challenge to Professional Engineers and Technical Communicators. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 1–12. doi:10.1002/9781118360491.ch1. ISBN   9781118360491.
  15. ↑ Wilkinson, Paul Johnston (2003). End-user documentation (Doctoral). Durham theses, Durham University. pp. 2–6.
  16. ↑ Stanton, Jeffrey M.; Stam, Kathryn R.; Mastrangelo, Paul; Jolton, Jeffrey (2005-03-01). "Analysis of end user security behaviors". Computers & Security. 24 (2): 124–133. doi:10.1016/j.cose.2004.07.001.
  17. ↑ Tribelhorn, Ben (2007). "End user security" (PDF). Computer Security. Harvey Mudd College. Retrieved 2015-11-04.
  18. ↑ "End User Devices Security Guidance: Introduction – GOV.UK". www.gov.uk. Retrieved 2015-11-04.
  19. ↑ K. Reimers, D. Andersson (2017) POST-SECONDARY EDUCATION NETWORK SECURITY: THE END USER CHALLENGE AND EVOLVING THREATS, ICERI2017 Proceedings, pp. 1787–1796.
  20. ↑ "What is END USER?". thelawdictionary.org. Black's Law Dictionary. 2012-10-19. Retrieved 2015-06-28.
  21. ↑ "Defense trade controls overview" (PDF). www.pmddtc.state.gov. Washington, D.C.: United States Department of State . Retrieved 2015-06-28.
  22. ↑ "Nontransfer and use certificate" (PDF). www.pmddtc.state.gov. Washington, D.C.: United States Department of State. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-10-27. Retrieved 2015-06-28.
  23. ↑ "Frequently asked questions on End-User Undertakings | Find Laws, Legal Information, News & Solicitors". Findlaw UK. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-11-04.
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