Floppy trunk syndrome

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Floppy trunk syndrome (abbreviated FTS, also known as flaccid trunk paralysis) is a condition that causes trunk paralysis in African bush elephants. Initially observed in 1989, the syndrome primarily affected bull elephants in several select regions in Zimbabwe. Afflicted elephants exhibit paralysis in their trunk, often having to adapt to feed. The loss of their trunks' prehensile abilities results in malnutrition and possibly death. The condition is a result of degeneration of nerves in the trunk, and is suggested to be a result of either heavy metals or toxins. There is debate over whether the condition is reversible.

Contents

History

Floppy trunk syndrome was initially observed in 1989 on Fothergill Island, in Matusadona National Park, Zimbabwe, near Lake Kariba. [1] Five more cases were observed in the same location around a year later, and several more cases were observed in July and August 1992. Several elephants suffering from the condition were surgically biopsied while paralyzed in May 1989, and a necropsy of affected elephants was performed in November 1991 and April 1992. [2]

Signs and symptoms

Elephants with floppy trunk syndrome typically initially exhibit a loss of their trunk's prehensile abilities. The paralysis has been observed to start at the tip and work its way upward over the course of several months. As their trunks become increasingly paralyzed, elephants have difficulty feeding and learn to use their front feet or throw their trunk over branches to aid feeding. To avoid stomping on their trunk while walking, an elephant afflicted with the condition would fling their trunk over their tusks. In later stages of paralysis, affected elephants needed to submerge themselves partially in water to drink. [2] However, despite these learned adaptations, affected elephants were observed as emaciated, suffering from muscle atrophy and a lack of visceral fat. Untreated, this handicap could result in starvation. [3]

Scope

FTS has been observed in the northwest of Zimbabwe, [4] the Satara area of Kruger National Park, and Fothergill in Lake Kariba. The syndrome has only been observed in free-ranging elephants specifically Loxodonta africana , and primarily affects older male elephants. [3] [5] Over thirty elephants were observed to be afflicted with this paralysis, including at least eight in Kruger National Park and twelve cases near Fothergill Island. [3] In Gonarezhou National Park in south eastern Zimbabwe, several cases of FTS have been reported since 2013 (approximately half a dozen individuals) all of which were elephant bulls.

Possible causes

The paralysis is caused by degeneration of peripheral nerves, which begins at the tip of the trunk. [4]

A comparison of areas affected by FTS and unaffected areas suggests three plant species may be the cause: Heliotropium , specifically Heliotropium ovalifolium, Indigofera , and Boerhavia . [3] Native to Nigeria, Heliotropium ovalifolium is known to be poisonous and has been cited to cause diarrhea and bleeding in humans. [6] It is theorized that elephants are being forced to consume toxic vegetation due to changes in weather patterns and to the natural ecology of their habitats. [7] Several cases were observed when drought conditions enabled elephants to access grasslands adjacent to Fothergill Island. [3]

Lead poisoning has also been suggested as a cause. The degeneration of nerves found in afflicted elephants mirrors the effect of lead intoxication in humans and horses. Additionally, potentially mitigating factors of lead poisoning, such as dietary selenium, are deficient in Zimbabwe. [2]

Treatment

There is no known treatment for FTS, as the cause is not yet known. There are conflicting reports on whether the paralysis is reversible; some sources claim that moving an elephant away from the area in which it contracted the condition will allow it to recover, [5] while others claim that damage to the trunk is irreversible. [3]

In some extreme cases, wildlife managers have had to euthanise affected elephants. [3]

Related Research Articles

Elephant Large terrestrial mammals with trunks from Africa and Asia

Elephants are the largest existing land animals. Three living species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant, the African forest elephant, and the Asian elephant. They are an informal grouping within the proboscidean family Elephantidae. Elephantidae is the only surviving family of proboscideans; extinct members include the mastodons. Elephantidae also contains several extinct groups, including the mammoths and straight-tusked elephants. African elephants have larger ears and concave backs, whereas Asian elephants have smaller ears, and convex or level backs. The distinctive features of all elephants include a long proboscis called a trunk, tusks, large ear flaps, massive legs, and tough but sensitive skin. The trunk is used for breathing, bringing food and water to the mouth, and grasping objects. Tusks, which are derived from the incisor teeth, serve both as weapons and as tools for moving objects and digging. The large ear flaps assist in maintaining a constant body temperature as well as in communication. The pillar-like legs carry their great weight.

Paralysis is a loss of motor function in one or more muscles. Paralysis can be accompanied by a loss of feeling in the affected area if there is sensory damage as well as motor. In the United States, roughly 1 in 50 people have been diagnosed with some form of permanent or transient paralysis. The word comes from the Greek παράλυσις, "disabling of the nerves", itself from παρά (para), "beside, by" and λύσις (lysis), "making loose". A paralysis accompanied by involuntary tremors is usually called "palsy".

Ramsay Hunt syndrome type 2 Presentation of shingles in the geniculate ganglion

Ramsay Hunt syndrome type 2, also known as RHS and herpes zoster oticus, is a disorder that is caused by the reactivation of varicella zoster virus in the geniculate ganglion, a nerve cell bundle of the facial nerve.

Brachial plexus Network of nerves

The brachial plexus is a network of nerves formed by the anterior rami of the lower four cervical nerves and first thoracic nerve. This plexus extends from the spinal cord, through the cervicoaxillary canal in the neck, over the first rib, and into the armpit. It supplies afferent and efferent nerve fibers to the chest, shoulder, arm, forearm, and hand.

Paraplegia Impairment of motor and sensory functions in the lower limbs

Paraplegia is an impairment in motor or sensory function of the lower extremities. The word comes from Ionic Greek (παραπληγίη) "half-stricken". It is usually caused by spinal cord injury or a congenital condition that affects the neural (brain) elements of the spinal canal. The area of the spinal canal that is affected in paraplegia is either the thoracic, lumbar, or sacral regions. If four limbs are affected by paralysis, tetraplegia or quadriplegia is the correct term. If only one limb is affected, the correct term is monoplegia. Spastic paraplegia is a form of paraplegia defined by spasticity of the affected muscles, rather than flaccid paralysis.

Neurapraxia is a disorder of the peripheral nervous system in which there is a temporary loss of motor and sensory function due to blockage of nerve conduction, usually lasting an average of six to eight weeks before full recovery. Neurapraxia is derived from the word apraxia, meaning “loss or impairment of the ability to execute complex coordinated movements without muscular or sensory impairment”.

Horners syndrome Medical condition

Horner's syndrome, also known as oculosympathetic paresis, is a combination of symptoms that arises when a group of nerves known as the sympathetic trunk is damaged. The signs and symptoms occur on the same side (ipsilateral) as it is a lesion of the sympathetic trunk. It is characterized by miosis, partial ptosis, apparent anhydrosis, with apparent enophthalmos.

Erbs palsy Paralysis of the arm usually caused during birth

Erb's palsy is a paralysis of the arm caused by injury to the upper group of the arm's main nerves, specifically the severing of the upper trunk C5–C6 nerves. These form part of the brachial plexus, comprising the ventral rami of spinal nerves C5–C8 and thoracic nerve T1. These injuries arise most commonly, but not exclusively, from shoulder dystocia during a difficult birth. Depending on the nature of the damage, the paralysis can either resolve on its own over a period of months, necessitate rehabilitative therapy, or require surgery.

Laryngeal paralysis in animals is a condition in which the nerves and muscles that control the movements of one or both arytenoid cartilages of the larynx cease to function, and instead of opening during aspiration and closing during swallowing, the arytenoids remain stationary in a somewhat neutral position. Specifically, the muscle that causes abduction of the arytenoid cartilage, the cricoarytenoideus dorsalis muscle, ceases to function. This leads to inadequate ventilation during exercise and during thermoregulatory panting as well as incomplete protection of the airway during swallowing.

Neuritis Inflammation of a nerve or generally any part of the nervous system

Neuritis is inflammation of a nerve or the general inflammation of the peripheral nervous system. Inflammation, and frequently concomitant demyelination, cause impaired transmission of neural signals and leads to aberrant nerve function. Neuritis is often conflated with neuropathy, a broad term describing any disease process which affects the peripheral nervous system. However, neuropathies may be due to either inflammatory or non-inflammatory causes, and the term encompasses any form of damage, degeneration, or dysfunction, while neuritis refers specifically to the inflammatory process.

Nerve conduction velocity

Nerve conduction velocity (CV) is an important aspect of nerve conduction studies. It is the speed at which an electrochemical impulse propagates down a neural pathway. Conduction velocities are affected by a wide array of factors, which include; age, sex, and various medical conditions. Studies allow for better diagnoses of various neuropathies, especially demyelinating diseases as these conditions result in reduced or non-existent conduction velocities.

Foot drop Gait abnormality

Foot drop is a gait abnormality in which the dropping of the forefoot happens due to weakness, irritation or damage to the deep fibular nerve, including the sciatic nerve, or paralysis of the muscles in the anterior portion of the lower leg. It is usually a symptom of a greater problem, not a disease in itself. Foot drop is characterized by inability or impaired ability to raise the toes or raise the foot from the ankle (dorsiflexion). Foot drop may be temporary or permanent, depending on the extent of muscle weakness or paralysis and it can occur in one or both feet. In walking, the raised leg is slightly bent at the knee to prevent the foot from dragging along the ground.

Fazio–Londe disease Medical condition

Fazio–Londe disease (FLD), also called progressive bulbar palsy of childhood, is a very rare inherited motor neuron disease of children and young adults and is characterized by progressive paralysis of muscles innervated by cranial nerves.

Parry–Romberg syndrome Rare disease involving degeneration of tissues beneath the skin

Parry–Romberg syndrome (PRS) is a rare disease characterized by progressive shrinkage and degeneration of the tissues beneath the skin, usually on only one side of the face but occasionally extending to other parts of the body. An autoimmune mechanism is suspected, and the syndrome may be a variant of localized scleroderma, but the precise cause and pathogenesis of this acquired disorder remains unknown. It has been reported in the literature as a possible consequence of sympathectomy. The syndrome has a higher prevalence in females and typically appears between 5 and 15 years of age.

Vocal cord paresis, also known as recurrent laryngeal nerve paralysis or vocal fold paralysis, is an injury to one or both recurrent laryngeal nerves (RLNs), which control all muscles of the larynx except for the cricothyroid muscle. The RLN is important for speaking, breathing and swallowing.

Flaccid paralysis is a neurological condition characterized by weakness or paralysis and reduced muscle tone without other obvious cause. This abnormal condition may be caused by disease or by trauma affecting the nerves associated with the involved muscles. For example, if the somatic nerves to a skeletal muscle are severed, then the muscle will exhibit flaccid paralysis. When muscles enter this state, they become limp and cannot contract. This condition can become fatal if it affects the respiratory muscles, posing the threat of suffocation. It also occur in spinal shock stage in complete transection of spinal cord occurred in injuries like gunshots injuries.

Acute motor axonal neuropathy (AMAN) is a variant of Guillain–Barré syndrome. It is characterized by acute paralysis and loss of reflexes without sensory loss. Pathologically, there is motor axonal degeneration with antibody-mediated attacks of motor nerves and nodes of Ranvier.

Critical illness polyneuropathy (CIP) and critical illness myopathy (CIM) are overlapping syndromes of diffuse, symmetric, flaccid muscle weakness occurring in critically ill patients and involving all extremities and the diaphragm with relative sparing of the cranial nerves. CIP and CIM have similar symptoms and presentations and are often distinguished largely on the basis of specialized electrophysiologic testing or muscle and nerve biopsy. The causes of CIP and CIM are unknown, though they are thought to be a possible neurological manifestation of systemic inflammatory response syndrome. Corticosteroids and neuromuscular blocking agents, which are widely used in intensive care, may contribute to the development of CIP and CIM, as may elevations in blood sugar, which frequently occur in critically ill patients.

African bush elephant Species of mammal

The African bush elephant, also known as the African savanna elephant, is one of two living African elephant species. It is the largest living terrestrial animal, with bulls reaching a shoulder height of up to 3.96 m and a body mass of up to 10.4 t . It is distributed across 37 African countries and inhabits forests, grasslands and woodlands, wetlands and agricultural land. Since 2021, it has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. It is threatened foremost by habitat destruction, and in parts of its range also by poaching for meat and ivory. It is a social mammal, travelling in herds composed of cows and their offspring. Adult bulls usually live alone or in small bachelor groups. It is a herbivore, feeding on grasses, creepers, herbs, leaves, and bark.

Villaret's syndrome combines ipsilateral paralysis of the last four cranial nerves and Horner syndrome. Sometimes cranial nerve VII is also involved. It may also involve the cervical ganglia of the sympathetic trunk. Paralysis is caused by a lesion in the retroparotid space, which is bounded posteriorly by the cervical vertebrae, superiorly by the skull near the jugular foramen, anteriorly by the parotid gland, laterally by the sternocleidomastoid muscle, and medially by the pharynx.

References

  1. ↑ "Bangladesh Vs Zimbabwe Live Match". onlinetheater.info.
  2. 1 2 3 Kock, ND; SA Goedegebuure; EP Lane; V Lucke; D Tyrrell; MD Kock (1994). "Flaccid trunk paralysis in free-ranging elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Zimbabwe" (PDF). Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 30 (3): 432–435. doi:10.7589/0090-3558-30.3.432. PMID   7933290. S2CID   85104902.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Fowler, Murray; Mikota, Susan (September 2006). Murray E. Fowler, Susan K. Mikota (ed.). Biology, Medicine, and Surgery of Elephants. Wiley, John & Sons, Incorporated. pp. 67, 396, 441. ISBN   978-0-8138-0676-1.
  4. 1 2 Cole, Mary (14 November 1992). "Lead in lake blamed for floppy trunks". New Scientist. Retrieved 2009-06-25.
  5. 1 2 Firestone, Matthew (2009). Watching wildlife: Southern Africa : South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Zambia. Lonely Planet. ISBN   978-1-7410-4210-8 . Retrieved 26 June 2012.
  6. ↑ Schmelzer, G. H (2008). Medicinal plants. Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. p. 323. ISBN   978-90-5782-204-9 . Retrieved 12 November 2009.
  7. ↑ JM (May 2000). "Poison clue to wildlife deaths". Geographical. 72 (5): 13.
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