Frontispiece (architecture)

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The tracery of the Saint George Chapel, at the Palau de la Generalitat de Catalunya in Barcelona depicts smaller frontispieces framing windows and side entrances commonly known as pediments. Capella Sant Jordi.jpg
The tracery of the Saint George Chapel, at the Palau de la Generalitat de Catalunya in Barcelona depicts smaller frontispieces framing windows and side entrances commonly known as pediments.

In architecture, the term frontispiece is used to describe the principal face of the building, usually referring to a combination of elements that frame and decorate the main or front entrance of a building. [1] The earliest and most notable variation of frontispieces can be seen in Ancient Greek Architecture [2] which features a large triangular gable, known as a pediment, usually supported by a collection of columns. However, some architectural authors have often used the term "frontispiece" and "pediment" interchangeably in reference to both large frontispieces decorating the main entrances, as well as smaller frontispieces framing windows which is traditionally known as a pediment. [3]

Contents

Frontispieces in pre-20th century architecture were considered decorative and ornamental structures used predominantly to dignify the façades of the building rather than for any structural or practical purpose. [4] With the proliferation of minimalistic ideas in 21st century architecture, a large emphasis is placed on simplicity and practicality when designing the façades of buildings. [5] Traditional decorative frontispieces are rarely used in the designing of post-modern buildings.

Frontispieces from different eras can be distinguished by the different variations of pediments used (triangular, segmented, open or broken pediments), [6] as well as the ornamentation of the columns corresponding to a particular architectural era.

Etymology

The word frontispiece describes the "decorated entrance of a building" and is historically derived from the Medieval Latin word frontispicium meaning the façade or exterior of the building. [7]

The word frontispicium stems from the latin frons meaning ‘forehead or front’ and specere meaning ‘to look at'. As a whole, the word took on the meaning: ‘a view of the forehead, judgement of character through facial features’. [8] Incorporated into the architectural sphere, it signifies the physical characteristics of the exterior of a building, especially pertaining to the architectural ornaments surrounding the entrance. [8]

Traditionally according to The Complete Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, [1] frontispieces should be used in reference to ornaments and structures specifically on the principle face of the building, while pediments should be used to describe smaller ornamentation above gates, windows, doors, etc. [1] especially ones with 'a triangular space that forms the gable of a low-pitched roof and that is usually filled with relief sculpture in classical architecture'. [9]

In modern day architecture, the frontispiece of a building is often referred to as the "façade" of the building. [10] Some architectural authors have also interchangeably used "frontispiece" with the word "pediment" in recent years given the similar nature of the ornaments involved. [3]

Frontispieces in literature

This is the Frontispiece to Campbell's edition of Palladio's First Book of Architecture. There are architectural influences in the broken pediment sat atop coupled Corinthian columns. This image also features a portrait of Palladio (the author), himself, in the manner of a classical statue. Frontispiece to Campbell's edition of Palladio's 'First Book of Architecture'.jpg
This is the Frontispiece to Campbell's edition of Palladio's First Book of Architecture. There are architectural influences in the broken pediment sat atop coupled Corinthian columns. This image also features a portrait of Palladio (the author), himself, in the manner of a classical statue.

From the 17th century, the word "frontispiece" became synonymous to the small illustrations facing the title page of a book or the ornaments on the title page itself. Illustrations creating the frontispiece of a book would often borrow stylistic elements from architecture such as drawings of columns and architectural ornaments. [12] Following this development, authors began using the frontispieces of books, usually one of the only illustrations in the books during that period, to imply and communicate their perspectives and intentions as it was seen as the reader’s first gateway and glimpse into the book [12] — namely to put their literary stamp in their book as artists did with their works of art during that period. [13]

Function and elements

During the classical era between the 8th century BC and 6th century AD, frontispieces often consisted of a triangular gable, more specifically called the pediment of the building, which sat atop columns. Elaborate frontispieces were often only present on the façades of sacred buildings such as temples and tombs. Especially seen in ancient Greece and Rome, frontispieces were often used to depict mythological gods or even important figures in society depending on the purpose and patrons of the building. [14]

In the 21st century, frontispieces were more commonly used in reference to small frontispieces above windows and doors serving the pure purpose of ornamentation. The smaller frontispieces of this period often feature engaged columns, which are partly embedded in the wall of the façade. [2]

Columns

An 18th Century image from the Encyclopedie vol. 18 depicts the main variations of classical orders in architecture. Classical orders from the Encyclopedie.png
An 18th Century image from the Encyclopédie vol. 18 depicts the main variations of classical orders in architecture.

The style of the columns, often known as the architectural orders, found bracketing the entrance of buildings, is often used as one of the distinguishing features between frontispieces of different architectural periods. [15]

Pediments

These illustrations depict some of the varying types of pediments and columns commonly found in Ancient Greek and Ancient Roman Architecture. Illustrations of types of pediments.jpg
These illustrations depict some of the varying types of pediments and columns commonly found in Ancient Greek and Ancient Roman Architecture.

Another distinguishing feature of frontispieces is the style of pediments used which can range from triangular pediments, segmental pediments, open pediments to broken pediments. [6]

Triangular pediments, often the most commonly used style of pediment features a triangle framed by a cornice or ledge, with the apex at the top, two symmetrical straight lines sloping to the ends of the horizontal cornice. [6] Segmental pediments, also called round or curved pediments have a rounded cornice replacing two sides of the traditional triangular pediment. [6] Open pediments can be distinguished by the absent or nearly absent strong horizontal line (cornice) of the pediment. [6] Broken pediments, made prominent in Baroque Architecture, can be identified by their non-continuous triangular outline, usually open at the top apex. [6] One of the prominent variations of a broken pediment is a swan-necked or ram's head pediment which has a highly ornamented S-shape. [6]

Triangular Pediment
The facade of the Pantheon in Paris features a triangular pediment, featuring two symmetrical straight lines sloping to the ends of a horizontal cornice. Pantheon - Paris.jpg
The façade of the Panthéon in Paris features a triangular pediment, featuring two symmetrical straight lines sloping to the ends of a horizontal cornice.
Segmental (curved) Pediment
The decorative pediment of the Valencia Cathedral, Spain, features a segmental or curved pediment Fronto d'un altar, esglesia de la Companyia de Valencia.JPG
The decorative pediment of the Valencia Cathedral, Spain, features a segmental or curved pediment
Open Pediment
This image features an open pediment where the usual strong horizontal line (at the bottom) of the pediment is incomplete and filled by an emblem. 2021-09-13-08-41-35-1350x900.jpg
This image features an open pediment where the usual strong horizontal line (at the bottom) of the pediment is incomplete and filled by an emblem.
Broken Pediment
The frontispiece of the Cathedral of Almeria features a broken pediment where the top of the usual triangular outline is broken by an emblem of a double headed eagle. Pediment Cathedral, Almeria, Spain.jpg
The frontispiece of the Cathedral of Almería features a broken pediment where the top of the usual triangular outline is broken by an emblem of a double headed eagle.

Development and history of frontispieces

Classical architecture [8th century BC – 6th century AD]

In its classical form, the frontispiece of a building is commonly used to describe the ‘gable surmounting the façade of an ancient temple in classical architecture’ which is now often known as a pediment [16] and used as ornaments to the entrance of a building. During this era, frontispieces were used to describe ornaments on the principle face of the building and were predominantly used above large columns in the entrance, making up a large part of the façade of the building.

This image features a reconstruction of the west pediment of the Parthenon depicting the mythological gods, Athena and Poseidon quarrelling for Athens and Attica. Pediments of the Parthenon as they were in 1683 - Stuart James & Revett Nicholas 1816 West.jpg
This image features a reconstruction of the west pediment of the Parthenon depicting the mythological gods, Athena and Poseidon quarrelling for Athens and Attica.
The Colosseum in Rome features superimposed orders, where successive storeys of the building have different variations of columns. This style of facades was developed in ancient Greece and Rome and later used in the Renaissance era architecture. Colosseo 2020.jpg
The Colosseum in Rome features superimposed orders, where successive storeys of the building have different variations of columns. This style of façades was developed in ancient Greece and Rome and later used in the Renaissance era architecture.

In Greek architecture, frontispieces can refer to both large ornamentation on the triangular tops of buildings as well as smaller frontispieces. Larger frontispieces found on the front façades of sacred buildings often depicted mythological gods or important figures in history depending on the purpose, and patronage, of the building. [14] The Parthenon, built in Ancient Athens, is one of the most recognisable examples of a classically designed frontispiece. [17] Built in 447BC, the ionic pediments of the Parthenon primarily featured Greek mythology and lore surrounding the Greek goddess, Athena, who was the patron of the Ancient city of Athens and the Parthenon. [18]

Classical elements such as superimposed orders, which refers to the architectural system of using different styles of columns for each storey of a building, was introduced and often used for decorative functions in classical architecture. [4] One of the most popular examples of superimposed orders was on the classical façade of the Colosseum. [19] Built in 70AD, the Colosseum featured an arrangement of orders on a classical frontispiece of several storeys, set one above the other with each storey corresponding to a particular architectural order. [20]

Romanesque architecture [6th–11th century AD]

A drawing of the tomb of Giuliano de' Medici in the Medici Chapel (originally sculpted by Michelangelo) features smaller, more ornamental frontispieces with a segmental, curved pediment on either side of the coupled columns. The Tomb of Giuliano de' Medici from The Tombs of the Medici MET DP874311.jpg
A drawing of the tomb of Giuliano de' Medici in the Medici Chapel (originally sculpted by Michelangelo) features smaller, more ornamental frontispieces with a segmental, curved pediment on either side of the coupled columns.

The move from the typical triangular pediments to segmental, curved pediments is seen in the carvings on the imperial sarcophagi in Rome which depicts the architecture of the era. [21] Romanesque architecture also popularised the use of smaller, ornamental frontispieces surrounding windows. Many well-preserved examples of Roman influenced frontispieces can be found in Provence, France due to the use of ‘fine quality building stone’ while others constructed with a decorative veneer were quickly lost. [12]

Romanesque influences in frontispieces can also be seen in the aerarium, treasury of ancient Rome, which features classical Roman architecture with both traditional triangular pediments as well as elaborate broken pediments. [22]

The Tombs of Lorenzo and Giulano de’Medici sculpted by Michelangelo also features etchings of frontispiece styles popular during this era which include the use of smaller, decorative frontispieces with curved pediments.

Renaissance architecture [early 14th – 16th century AD]

Renaissance Architecture, which ushered a revival of ancient Greek and Roman classical architectural forms, [6] saw the introduction and proliferation of classical elements, which included the frequent usage of large columns and pediments. [4] Classical elements, such as superimposed orders, were reintroduced in the sixteenth century to dignify the entrances to some important houses and some collegiate buildings. [4]

In the late 1520s to early 1530s, there was a revival of the heavy use of dense classical ornaments on the frontispieces which can be seen on the facade of Hengrave Hall, Suffolk, England built in 1538, [4] as well as the addition of elements distinctive of the Italian Renaissance such as the use of terracotta moulded decorative elements [23] featured on the façade of the hall entrance to Richard Weston’s Sutton Place, Surrey, built in 1533.

The classical decor above the entrance of Hengrave Hall depicts the dense ornaments used in a frontispiece designed in the Early Renaissance Era. The baronial halls, picturesque edifices, and ancient churches of England (1845) (14765819842).jpg
The classical decor above the entrance of Hengrave Hall depicts the dense ornaments used in a frontispiece designed in the Early Renaissance Era.
The Main Entrance of Sutton Place, Surrey shows the introduction of Renaissance ideas in English building design. The decorative elements on the facade made of moulded terracotta was a distinctive feature of the Italian Renaissance. Sutton Place, Surrey.jpg
The Main Entrance of Sutton Place, Surrey shows the introduction of Renaissance ideas in English building design. The decorative elements on the façade made of moulded terracotta was a distinctive feature of the Italian Renaissance.
This image Somerset House, London showcases rejuvenation of classical antiquities such as the use of superimposed orders, classical Roman triumphal arches and prominent use of columns. Somerset House Strand Block.JPG
This image Somerset House, London showcases rejuvenation of classical antiquities such as the use of superimposed orders, classical Roman triumphal arches and prominent use of columns.

In the mid-16th century, the building of Old Somerset House was considered one of "the first deliberate attempts to build, in England, a front composed altogether in the classical taste" [24] and was "unquestionably one of the most influential buildings of the English Renaissance." [24] Although there was nothing new about the principle features of the façade, the stylistic attempts at consistency and symmetry in the structure of the frontispiece showed the growing awareness, during the late renaissance era in England, [4] for 'regularity in planning and greater visual unity and symmetry' and a 'consistent use of the classical orders'. [25] The three-storey frontispiece prominently placed at the centre of the façade of the Old Somerset House comprised a gateway in the form of a triumphal arch with superimposed orders and columns flanking windows the structure of which can be traced back to the arch in Castel Nuovo, Naples, borrowing the triumphal arch motif from Roman antiquity.

In contrast to the predominantly decorative functions of frontispieces in the Classical Era, the sixteenth century also brought the introduction of the first classical portico to England [4] at St Paul's Cathedral, which was design by Inigo Jones. The portico served the more practical and structural purpose of providing a covered walkway at the entrance of the building. [26]

It was noted by Richard John Riddell, who analysed entrance-porticos in English Renaissance architecture, that the most impressive and architecturally sophisticated frontispieces were often set against houses 'by men who enjoyed or aspired to preferment and high office, with the immense political power and social prestige, and by academics who wished to give permanent expression to the distinction of their college and university'. [4] Frontispieces of this nature were purely for applied and decorative functions, even the 'fullest extent of the role of the columns in their load-bearing capacity was to hold up each other and not the building'. [4]

Baroque architecture [17th – mid 18th century AD]

The white facade of the Church of San Giorgio Maggiore depicts a baroque influenced architectural frontispiece, featuring an unusual broken pediment as it is the result of superimposing two temple fronts, resulting in a triangular pediment (above) 'breaking' the bottom pediment. Basilica di San Giorgio Maggiore (Venice).jpg
The white façade of the Church of San Giorgio Maggiore depicts a baroque influenced architectural frontispiece, featuring an unusual broken pediment as it is the result of superimposing two temple fronts, resulting in a triangular pediment (above) ‘breaking’ the bottom pediment.

In baroque architecture, frontispieces also took on semi-oval structures which decorated the tops of the entrances with added embellishments synonymous to the household or building. Frontispieces during this period featured more opulent and theatric style in ornamentation and grandeur as was common during the era. During this period, the use of broken frontispieces and heavy ornaments was featured in many of the buildings. [27] This is seen in Palácio do Freixo designed by Nicolò Nasoni, who was heavily influenced by the baroque architecture. Another known example of this is seen in Andrea Palladio’s Church of San Giorgio Maggiore, in Venice which features an unusual broken pediment as it is the result of superimposing two temple fronts. [22]

Neoclassical architecture [mid-18th – early 19th century AD]

In the late 18th century to the 19th century, neoclassical frontispieces were often described as ‘a portion of the façade of a building, that is slightly raised from the rest of the building’ using engaged columns with lighter ornamentation. [12] Frontispieces during the neoclassical era commonly consisted of simple geometric shapes with a large emphasis on the use of columns, especially Doric columns.

Post-modernism architecture [late 20th – 21st century AD]

In the 20th century post-modernism era, buildings such as the Marco Polo House designed by Ian Pollard and the 550 Madison Avenue building designed by Philip Johnson feature large scale broken pediments at the top of their buildings providing a post-modern take on broken pediments often found in baroque architecture. [22]

A modern facade incorporating minimalistic elements such as clean structural lines and lack of decorative ornaments. Integra 2.0s.jpg
A modern façade incorporating minimalistic elements such as clean structural lines and lack of decorative ornaments.

Though some architects have designed buildings modernising on architectural styles and structures of the past, architecture of the 21st century seems to be moving in the direction of minimalism, contrary to grandiose nature of frontispieces seen from the Classical Era to the Neoclassical Era. Minimalism in architecture is often characterised by the rejection of ornament and the ‘emphasis on rational use and function’ [29] and popularised in the late 1980s in London and New York with buildings combining clean lines and architectural profiles usually tied to iconic geometry. [29]

These moves towards minimalism can be seen in the proliferation of the Wabi-sabi aesthetics, popularised in Japan which translates roughly to ‘the elegant beauty of humble simplicity’, [28] encapsulating Taoist and Buddhist ideologies of accepting nature and ‘favouring the imperfect and incomplete in everything’. [28] The Scandinavian notion of Hygge has similar roots in minimalism. Hygge designs and aesthetics are inspired by the Scandinavian landscape of fjords, forests and mountains and are characterised by mild colour palettes consisting of pewter grays, soft pastel shades with flashes of bright metallic shades. [30]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Renaissance architecture</span>

Renaissance architecture is the European architecture of the period between the early 15th and early 16th centuries in different regions, demonstrating a conscious revival and development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman thought and material culture. Stylistically, Renaissance architecture followed Gothic architecture and was succeeded by Baroque architecture and neoclassical architecture. Developed first in Florence, with Filippo Brunelleschi as one of its innovators, the Renaissance style quickly spread to other Italian cities. The style was carried to other parts of Europe at different dates and with varying degrees of impact.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ancient Greek architecture</span>

Ancient Greek architecture came from the Greeks, or Hellenes, whose culture flourished on the Greek mainland, the Peloponnese, the Aegean Islands, and in colonies in Anatolia and Italy for a period from about 900 BC until the 1st century AD, with the earliest remaining architectural works dating from around 600 BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Doric order</span> Order of classical architecture

The Doric order is one of the three orders of ancient Greek and later Roman architecture; the other two canonical orders were the Ionic and the Corinthian. The Doric is most easily recognized by the simple circular capitals at the top of the columns. Originating in the western Doric region of Greece, it is the earliest and, in its essence, the simplest of the orders, though still with complex details in the entablature above.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ionic order</span> Order of classical architecture

The Ionic order is one of the three canonic orders of classical architecture, the other two being the Doric and the Corinthian. There are two lesser orders: the Tuscan, and the rich variant of Corinthian called the composite order. Of the three classical canonic orders, the Corinthian order has the narrowest columns, followed by the Ionic order, with the Doric order having the widest columns.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pilaster</span> Decorative architectural element giving the appearance of a supporting column

In architecture, a pilaster is both a load-bearing section of thickened wall or column integrated into a wall, and a purely decorative element in classical architecture which gives the appearance of a supporting column and articulates an extent of wall. As an ornament it consists of a flat surface raised from the main wall surface, usually treated as though it were a column, with a capital at the top, plinth (base) at the bottom, and the various other column elements. In contrast to a Classical pilaster, an engaged column or buttress can support the structure of a wall and roof above.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pediment</span> Element in classical, neoclassical and baroque architecture

Pediments are a form of gable in classical architecture, usually of a triangular shape. Pediments are placed above the horizontal structure of the cornice, or entablature if supported by columns. In ancient architecture, a wide and low triangular pediment typically formed the top element of the portico of a Greek temple, a style continued in Roman temples. But large pediments were rare on other types of building before Renaissance architecture. For symmetric designs, it provides a center point and is often used to add grandness to entrances.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Capital (architecture)</span> Upper part of a column

In architecture, the capital or chapiter forms the topmost member of a column. It mediates between the column and the load thrusting down upon it, broadening the area of the column's supporting surface. The capital, projecting on each side as it rises to support the abacus, joins the usually square abacus and the usually circular shaft of the column. The capital may be convex, as in the Doric order; concave, as in the inverted bell of the Corinthian order; or scrolling out, as in the Ionic order. These form the three principal types on which all capitals in the classical tradition are based. The Composite order established in the 16th century on a hint from the Arch of Titus, adds Ionic volutes to Corinthian acanthus leaves.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Portico</span> Type of porch

A portico is a porch leading to the entrance of a building, or extended as a colonnade, with a roof structure over a walkway, supported by columns or enclosed by walls. This idea was widely used in ancient Greece and has influenced many cultures, including most Western cultures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Outline of classical architecture</span> Architectural style, inspired by classical Greco-Roman architectural principles

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to classical architecture:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Roman temple</span> Temples of the Roman Republic and Empire

Ancient Roman temples were among the most important buildings in Roman culture, and some of the richest buildings in Roman architecture, though only a few survive in any sort of complete state. Today they remain "the most obvious symbol of Roman architecture". Their construction and maintenance was a major part of ancient Roman religion, and all towns of any importance had at least one main temple, as well as smaller shrines. The main room (cella) housed the cult image of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated, and often a table for supplementary offerings or libations and a small altar for incense. Behind the cella was a room, or rooms, used by temple attendants for storage of equipment and offerings. The ordinary worshiper rarely entered the cella, and most public ceremonies were performed outside of the cella where the sacrificial altar was located, on the portico, with a crowd gathered in the temple precinct.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tuscan order</span> Architectural order

The Tuscan order is one of the two classical orders developed by the Romans, the other being the composite order. It is influenced by the Doric order, but with un-fluted columns and a simpler entablature with no triglyphs or guttae. While relatively simple columns with round capitals had been part of the vernacular architecture of Italy and much of Europe since at least Etruscan architecture, the Romans did not consider this style to be a distinct architectural order. Its classification as a separate formal order is first mentioned in Isidore of Seville's 6th-century Etymologiae and refined during the Italian Renaissance.

This page is a glossary of architecture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne</span> Building in Rome, Italy

The Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne is a Renaissance palace in Rome, Italy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">French Baroque architecture</span> Architecture of the Baroque era in France

French Baroque architecture, usually called French classicism, was a style of architecture during the reigns of Louis XIII (1610–1643), Louis XIV (1643–1715) and Louis XV (1715–1774). It was preceded by French Renaissance architecture and Mannerism and was followed in the second half of the 18th century by French Neoclassical architecture. The style was originally inspired by the Italian Baroque architecture style, but, particularly under Louis XIV, it gave greater emphasis to regularity, the colossal order of façades, and the use of colonnades and cupolas, to symbolize the power and grandeur of the King. Notable examples of the style include the Grand Trianon of the Palace of Versailles, and the dome of Les Invalides in Paris. In the final years of Louis XIV and the reign of Louis XV, the colossal orders gradually disappeared, the style became lighter and saw the introduction of wrought iron decoration in rocaille designs. The period also saw the introduction of monumental urban squares in Paris and other cities, notably Place Vendôme and the Place de la Concorde. The style profoundly influenced 18th-century secular architecture throughout Europe; the Palace of Versailles and the French formal garden were copied by other courts all over Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">French Renaissance architecture</span> Style of French architecture

French Renaissance architecture is a style which was prominent between the late 15th and early 17th centuries in the Kingdom of France. It succeeded French Gothic architecture. The style was originally imported from Italy after the Hundred Years' War by the French kings Charles VII, Louis XI, Charles VIII, Louis XII and François I. Several notable royal châteaux in this style were built in the Loire Valley, notably the Château de Montsoreau, the Château de Langeais, the Château d'Amboise, the Château de Blois, the Château de Gaillon and the Château de Chambord, as well as, closer to Paris, the Château de Fontainebleau.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tympanum (architecture)</span> Architectural element

A tympanum is the semi-circular or triangular decorative wall surface over an entrance, door or window, which is bounded by a lintel and an arch. It often contains pedimental sculpture or other imagery or ornaments. Many architectural styles include this element.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fluting (architecture)</span> Architectural practice of cutting grooves through an otherwise plain surface

Fluting in architecture and the decorative arts consists of shallow grooves running along a surface. The term typically refers to the curved grooves (flutes) running vertically on a column shaft or a pilaster, but is not restricted to those two applications. If the scoops taken out of the material meet in a sharp ridge, the ridge is called an arris. If the raised ridge between two flutes appears flat, the ridge is a fillet. Fluted columns are common in the tradition of classical architecture but were not invented by the ancient Greeks, but rather passed down or learned from the Mycenaeans or the Egyptians.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United States Post Office and Courthouse (New Bern, North Carolina)</span> Historic building in the United States

The United States Post Office and Courthouse is a courthouse of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of North Carolina, located in New Bern, North Carolina. The building was completed in 1935, and was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1973, as a contributing building within the New Bern Historic District, and was individually listed in 2018.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peruvian colonial architecture</span> Architectural style combining European styles with the local Peruvian reality

The Peruvian colonial architecture, developed in the Viceroyalty of Peru between the 16th and 19th centuries, was characterized by the importation and adaptation of European architectural styles to the Peruvian reality, yielding an original architecture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fonseca House</span> Neoclassical Building in Pontevedra, Spain

The Fonseca House is a building on the Paseo de Colón in the city of Pontevedra, Spain. It is one of the most impressive historical buildings in the city, distinguished by its neoclassical architecture and by the two stone Sphinxes and two large Canary palm trees that flank its entrance. It is currently the headquarters of the Historical Archive of the Province of Pontevedra.

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  24. 1 2 Summerson, John (1935). John Nash, Architect to King George IV. G. Allen & Unwin Limited, 1935. pp. 45–46.
  25. ↑ Howard, Maurice (1987). The early Tudor country house : architecture and politics, 1490-1550. London: G. Philip. ISBN   0-540-01119-3. OCLC   20352890.
  26. ↑ "Portico - History of Early American Landscape Design". heald.nga.gov. Retrieved 2022-05-25.
  27. ↑ Bury, J.B. (1 October 1956). "Late Baroque and Rococo in North Portugal". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 15 (3): 7–15. doi:10.2307/987760. JSTOR   987760.
  28. 1 2 3 Crossley-Baxter, Lily. "Japan's unusual way to view the world". www.bbc.com. Retrieved 2022-05-25.
  29. 1 2 "Minimalist Modern: The Architecture of Rural Retreats". ArchDaily. 2022-03-05. Retrieved 2022-05-25.
  30. ↑ "What Does Hygge Really Mean?". Architectural Digest. 2017-02-07. Retrieved 2022-05-25.
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