Gladstone LNG (GLNG) is a liquefied natural gas (LNG) plant in Queensland, Australia. It is a leading project in the conversion of coal seam gas (coalbed methane) into LNG. [1] The project was announced in July 2007. [2] Its first LNG tanker load departed 16 Oct 2015. [3] The second LNG production train began making LNG on 26 May 2016 [4]
The project involves the production of coal seam natural gas in the Surat and Bowen basins in eastern Queensland, which surround the regional centres of Roma and Fairview. Gas will be piped (520 km) to a gas liquefaction plant at Hamilton Point West on Curtis Island near Gladstone, Queensland. [2] There, coal seam natural gas will be converted into LNG. [1]
The initial annual capacity of the LNG plant was between 3 million and 4 million tonnes of LNG when the first production train entered service in 2015. [5] Annual capacity doubled when the second train came on line in 2016.
The front-end engineering and design (FEED) phase of the project was carried out by Foster Wheeler and Bechtel. [6] [7] A final investment decision on the GLNG project was approved by the State and Federal Governments in May and September 2010 respectively.
Gladstone Harbour is a natural deep water port off the coast of Queensland (Port of Gladstone - Wikipedia, n.d.), while Citrus island does not possess these natural deep waters. In order for this port to be viable, Santos needs to dredge out massive amounts of the sea floor (n.d.). Dredging involves removing sediment from the sea floor and moving it to a different location. According to original Santos plans, over 60,750 m3 of soil is to be dredged around five berths (n.d.). The commonwealth government has approved the dumping around the harbour mouth, which is about 1 km away from the Great Barrier Reef exclusion zone (Hunt, 2011). This dredging is causing massive problems around the Gladstone and Great Barrier Reef area.
In 2011 the port of Gladstone was forced to ban all fishing for three weeks because masses of dead and injured fishes, turtles and dugongs were found within the harbour (Dredging and Shipping Near the Great Barrier Reef, n.d.). This incident was never fully investigated, but the dredging within the harbour is the only explainable answer (Williams, 2011). Decreases in prawns, crabs and fish were also noted around the harbour. This decline is caused by a combination of increased disease and mortality rates (caused by toxins in the water) and movement of wildlife away from loud noises and low water quality (Landos, 2012).
Data revealed from the Port of Gladstone's website shows that the dredging around Citrus island has exceeded the permit conditions for water turbidity (Landos, 2012). Dumping sediment so close to the Great Barrier Reef have been shown to have an adverse effect on the coral (Landos, 2012). A study carried out by Nature Magazine (Jones et al., 2020) revealed that as the water turbidity went up, the corals suffered more, even leading to partial coral death. The experiment was carried out over 42 days on multiple specimens, all exposed to different amounts of turbidity. The results showed that high turbidity could cause 2 – 10% partial coral death, loss of colour, including full coral bleaching, and a definite loss of lipids in all samples (Jones et al., 2020). Dredging this close to the great barrier reef and for the same amount of time would have heavily affected not only the coral but also the animals that live in the area.
It's not only the turbidity of the water that's affecting the reef but also the toxic substances in the sediment. In the opinion of the FFVS(Future Fisheries Veterinary Service) (Landos, 2012), the resuspension of sediments in Gladstone harbour, especially PASS(Potential Acid Sulphate Soil) (which were present in large areas of dredged sediment in Gladstone harbour), have caused the release of large amounts of dissolved metals (including copper, zinc and aluminium) into the water (Landos, 2012). Comparing these values to historical data, it has been concluded that these elevations are as a direct cause of the dredging. These metals, especially PASS, affect marine wildlife in major ways (Landos, 2012).
These elements in large amounts in fish are known to inactivate enzymes by binding to amino, imino and sulfhydryl proteins or may damage cells by disrupting metabolic pathways (Landos, 2012). These metals have been shown to have a suppressive effect on the immune system of marine wildlife, which increases their susceptibility to diseases and parasitic infections (Landos, 2012). Exposure to metallic contaminants have also been linked to a long-term impairment of olfaction (the ability to smell). These affect anti-predator behaviour and responses to alarm cues in fish (Landos, 2012). This exposure has also been shown to cause irreparable damage to the gills and the surrounding structure (Landos, 2012).
These metals in Gladstone harbour have been shown to negatively affect the behaviour of fish, including predator avoidance, reproduction, and social behaviour (Landos, 2012).
Commonly dredging operations sound levels range from 111 to 170 dB (Wenger et al., 2017). This noise level has been shown to affect fishes in numerous ways, including behavioural changes, inability to hear points of interest, stress and phycological reactions, hearing loss and damage to auditory tissue, physical cell damage and possible mortality, impairment of the lateral line system (a sensory system that lets fish detect weak water motions and pressure gradients) and effects eggs and larvae (Wenger et al., 2017).
The ecological importance of nurseries for fish and crabs and feeding grounds for dugongs and turtles have guaranteed their protection from dredging. But masses of seagrass, mangroves and mudflats didn't have the same fate (Landos, 2012). Dredging and removal of these areas have impacted the sustainability of fisheries (where a fish breeds) around the harbour. Because coastal ecosystems are interconnected, a loss in fishery production is expected when removing large swaths of habitat (Connolly, et al., 2006). This is exactly what happened in Gladstone harbour, an effect that is highly likely to affect areas well outside of Gladstone harbour (Landos, 2012). This problem is made significantly worse by the fact that Gladstone port has the only significant area of seagrass for 170 km to the north and south (Connolly, et al., 2006). Even after the dredging has concluded it is unlikely that fishery production will ever recover.
Each year more than 11,000 ships traverse the waters around the Great Barrier Reef (Dredging and Shipping Near the Great Barrier Reef, n.d.). 350 of whom are bulk LNG carriers departing Gladstone (Record exports of LNG leave Gladstone in 2020–21, 2021). A singular ship traversing the great barrier reef causes only low-level damage, but as the shipping volume increases, these damages can accumulate significantly over time. Examples of these include damage from anchors and propellors, the introduction of invasive species, greenhouse gas and nitrogen oxide emission, and contamination from coal dust, sewage, and compounds, including oil and heavy metals (Shipping in the Great Barrier Reef: the miners' highway, 2022). This extra number of ships is increasing the likelihood of strikes on dugongs, turtles, whales, and other mammals. While also exposing them to excessive noise and light pollution (see 1.3) (Shipping in the Great Barrier Reef: the miners' highway, 2022).
GLNG exported its first load of LNG on 16 October 2015. [8] Queensland Premier Annastacia Palaszczuk, Minister for State Development Dr Anthony Lynham and Member for Gladstone Glenn Butcher were in Gladstone for the milestone to mark the first shipment. The Malaysian LNG tanker Seri Bakti transported the shipment to GLNG's customers in South Korea. [9]
It is being developed by the Australian energy company Santos Limited The joint venture arrangement is Santos 30%; PETRONAS 27.5%; Total 27.5%; and KOGAS 15%. [10]
The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest coral reef system, composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2,300 kilometres (1,400 mi) over an area of approximately 344,400 square kilometres (133,000 sq mi). The reef is located in the Coral Sea, off the coast of Queensland, Australia, separated from the coast by a channel 160 kilometres (100 mi) wide in places and over 61 metres (200 ft) deep. The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from outer space and is the world's biggest single structure made by living organisms. This reef structure is composed of and built by billions of tiny organisms, known as coral polyps. It supports a wide diversity of life and was selected as a World Heritage Site in 1981. CNN labelled it one of the Seven Natural Wonders of the World in 1997. Australian World Heritage places included it in its list in 2007. The Queensland National Trust named it a state icon of Queensland in 2006.
The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park protects a large part of Australia's Great Barrier Reef from damaging activities. It is a vast multiple-use Marine Park which supports a wide range of uses, including commercial marine tourism, fishing, ports and shipping, recreation, scientific research and Indigenous traditional use. Fishing and the removal of artefacts or wildlife is strictly regulated, and commercial shipping traffic must stick to certain specific defined shipping routes that avoid the most sensitive areas of the park. The Great Barrier Reef is the largest and best known coral reef ecosystem in the world. Its reefs, almost 3000 in total, represent about 10 per cent of all the coral reef areas in the world. It supports an amazing variety of biodiversity, providing a home to thousands of coral and other invertebrate species, bony fish, sharks, rays, marine mammals, marine turtles, sea snakes, as well as algae and other marine plants.
Moreton Bay is a bay located on the eastern coast of Australia 14 kilometres (8.7 mi) from central Brisbane, Queensland. It is one of Queensland's most important coastal resources. The waters of Moreton Bay are a popular destination for recreational anglers and are used by commercial operators who provide seafood to market.
The Coral Sea is a marginal sea of the South Pacific off the northeast coast of Australia, and classified as an interim Australian bioregion. The Coral Sea extends 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) down the Australian northeast coast. Most of it is protected by the French Natural Park of the Coral Sea and the Australian Coral Sea Marine Park. The sea was the location for the Battle of the Coral Sea, a major confrontation during World War II between the navies of the Empire of Japan, and the United States and Australia.
Dredging is the excavation of material from a water environment. Possible reasons for dredging include improving existing water features; reshaping land and water features to alter drainage, navigability, and commercial use; constructing dams, dikes, and other controls for streams and shorelines; and recovering valuable mineral deposits or marine life having commercial value. In all but a few situations the excavation is undertaken by a specialist floating plant, known as a dredger.
The New Caledonian barrier reef is a barrier reef located in New Caledonia in the South Pacific, being the longest continuous barrier reef in the world and the third largest after the Great Barrier Reef of Australia and the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef.
SEA LIFE Sydney Aquarium is a public aquarium that features a large variety of Australian aquatic life, displaying more than 700 species comprising more than 13,000 individual fish and other sea and water creatures from most of Australia's water habitats. Opened in 1988, it is regarded as one of Sydney's premier tourist attractions with over 55% of its visitors each year coming from overseas.
Siltation is water pollution caused by particulate terrestrial clastic material, with a particle size dominated by silt or clay. It refers both to the increased concentration of suspended sediments and to the increased accumulation of fine sediments on bottoms where they are undesirable. Siltation is most often caused by soil erosion or sediment spill.
Wonky hole is a colloquial, Australian term for a submarine groundwater discharge, a freshwater spring flowing from the seabed.
The Port of Gladstone is Queensland's largest multi-commodity port and the fifth largest multi-commodity port in Australia. It is the world's fourth largest coal exporting terminal. It is within the locality of Callemondah in Gladstone in Central Queensland and is located about 525 kilometres (326 mi) north of Brisbane at Latitude of 23°49.61'S, Longitude 151°34.6’E. It is owned and managed by Gladstone Ports Corporation, which is a statutory corporate body of the Government of Queensland.
The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest reef systems, stretching along the East coast of Australia from the northern tip down at Cape York to the town of Bundaberg, is composed of roughly 2,900 individual reefs and 940 islands and cays that stretch for 2,300 kilometres (1,616 mi) and cover an area of approximately 344,400 square kilometres (133,000 sq mi). The reef is located in the Coral Sea, off the coast of Queensland in northeast Australia. A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
Oyster Point lies at the mouth of Stoney Creek, about one kilometre south of Cardwell in northern Australia.
A fringing reef is one of the three main types of coral reef. It is distinguished from the other main types, barrier reefs and atolls, in that it has either an entirely shallow backreef zone (lagoon) or none at all. If a fringing reef grows directly from the shoreline, then the reef flat extends to the beach and there is no backreef. In other cases, fringing reefs may grow hundreds of yards from shore and contain extensive backreef areas within which it contains food and water, examples are Philippines, Indonesia, Timor-Leste, the western coast of Australia, the Caribbean, East Africa, and Red Sea. Charles Darwin believed that fringing reefs are the first kind of reefs to form around a landmass in a long-term reef growth process. The largest fringing coral reef in the world is the Ningaloo Reef, stretching to around 260 km (160 mi) along the coastline of Western Australia.
The 2010 Great Barrier Reef oil spill occurred on 3 April 2010, when the Chinese bulk coal carrier, MV Shen Neng 1 ran aground east of Rockhampton in Central Queensland, Australia. The vessel is owned by Shenzhen Energy Transport Co. Ltd.
Human activities have substantial impact on coral reefs, contributing to their worldwide decline.[1] Damaging activities encompass coral mining, pollution, overfishing, blast fishing, as well as the excavation of canals and access points to islands and bays. Additional threats comprise disease, destructive fishing practices, and the warming of oceans.[2] Furthermore, the ocean's function as a carbon dioxide sink, alterations in the atmosphere, ultraviolet light, ocean acidification, viral infections, the repercussions of dust storms transporting agents to distant reefs, pollutants, and algal blooms represent some of the factors exerting influence on coral reefs. Importantly, the jeopardy faced by coral reefs extends far beyond coastal regions. The ramifications of climate change, notably global warming, induce an elevation in ocean temperatures that triggers coral bleaching—a potentially lethal phenomenon for coral ecosystems.
A floating liquefied natural gas (FLNG) facility is a floating production storage and offloading unit that conducts liquefied natural gas (LNG) operations for developing offshore natural gas resources. Floating above an offshore natural gas field, the FLNG facility produces liquefied stores and transfers LNG at sea before carriers ship it directly to markets.
The Browse LNG was a liquefied natural gas plant project proposed for construction at James Price Point, 52 kilometres (32 mi) north of Broome on the Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia. It was considered by a joint venture including Woodside Petroleum, Shell, BP, Japan Australia LNG and BHP Billiton. It would have processed natural gas extracted from the Browse Basin. Liquefied natural gas would then be shipped from a port facility also located in the Browse LNG Precinct.
A Mesophotic coral reef or mesophotic coral ecosystem (MCE), originally from the Latin word meso (meaning middle) and photic (meaning light), is characterised by the presence of both light-dependent coral and algae, and organisms that can be found in water with low light penetration. Mesophotic Coral Ecosystem (MCEs) is a new, widely-adopted term used to refer to mesophotic coral reefs, as opposed to other similar terms like "deep coral reef communities" and "twilight zone", since those terms sometimes are confused due to their unclear, interchangeable nature.
Turbinaria mesenterina, commonly known as disc coral, is a species of colonial stony coral in the family Dendrophylliidae. It is native to the Indo-Pacific region. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated its conservation status as being "vulnerable".
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