Green economy policies in Canada

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Green economy policies in Canada are policies that contribute to transitioning the Canadian economy to a more environmentally sustainable one. The green economy can be defined as an economy, "that results in improved human well-being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities." [1] Aspects of a green economy would include stable growth in income and employment that is driven by private and public investment into policies and actions that reduce carbon emissions, pollution and prevent the loss of biodiversity. [1]

Contents

Wind turbines in Nova Scotia. East Pubnico, Nova Scotia, Canada.jpg
Wind turbines in Nova Scotia.

Green economy policies can be defined as legislation or actions put forth by public institutions with the main intent of furthering establishing an environmentally sustainable system. Some of these policies would include investments into green energy sectors aimed at reducing carbon emissions, and aiding the growth of renewable energy resources. [2] Green economy policies can also be considered on an international scale, with agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement. Policies on a national level include, agreements such as the Western Climate Initiative, and the Boreal Forest Agreement among many others.

More recently, green economy policies have become popular across various public jurisdictions in Canada. There has been an implementation of policies and initiatives across various levels of government. Due to the rise in frequency of these green economy policies in Canada, the socio-technical landscape is changing. More Canadians are supportive of green energy policies and a transition into a green economy. [3]

Varieties of green economy policies in Canada

Federal policies

Spending

For the federal government, there are several policy instruments that are available. Spending has been a key instrument in attempting to mitigate the effects of climate change so far. [4] Government investment and support in regards to green technology will only further the process of decarbonisation in Canada. [4] The federal government also collaborates frequently with the provinces in regards to how to move forward pursuing green technologies. [4] The federal government also controls the Low Carbon Economy Fund, the money which could be used as leverage and under conditional circumstances to promote climate action from the provinces. [5] In the federal budget of 2016 tabled by the federal government, the budget proposed providing $1 billion over 4 years to support clean technology. [6] This included the forestry, fisheries, mining, energy and agriculture sectors. Budget 2016 also provided $2.9 billion over 5 years to address climate change and air pollution issues aimed at reducing emissions and help meeting international obligations. [6] In total, nearly $1.6 billion will be spent on a clean growth economy from 2016-2018 by the federal government. [6]

Carbon pricing

Recently the federal government has established a minimum carbon price floor for provinces that do not currently have a pricing program. [7] According to the federal government, they are leaving it up to the provinces to implement a carbon pricing scheme. [8] Below are government stated goals for the new carbon pricing strategy:

  • Provinces and territories will have flexibility in deciding how they implement carbon pricing: they can put a direct price on carbon pollution or they can adopt a cap-and-trade system.
  • Pricing will be based on greenhouse gas emissions and applied to a common and broad set of sources to ensure effectiveness.
  • The price on carbon pollution should start at a minimum of $10 per tonne in 2018 and rise by $10 a year to reach $50 per tonne in 2022.
  • The Government of Canada will provide a pricing system for provinces and territories that do not adopt one of the two systems by 2018.
  • Revenues from carbon pricing will remain with provinces and territories of origin.

Carbon pricing has been a relatively new campaign pursued by the Government of Canada. The previous administration had not enacted a carbon scheme and the current government expects all jurisdictions across Canada to be compliant by 2018. [8]

International agreements

Trudeau at the Paris Climate agreement Conference. Canadian Prime Minister Trudeau Plays With Secretary Kerry's Granddaughter Before Both Officials Signed the COP21 Climate Change Agreement on Earth Day in New York (26514346291).jpg
Trudeau at the Paris Climate agreement Conference.

Recently the government of Canada signed a climate deal called the Paris Agreement. Under the agreement countries set their own limits on greenhouse gas reductions with the overall goal of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius. [9] While these targets are not legally binding, Canada specifically pledged to lower its emissions by 30% from 2005-2030. [10] This agreement was ratified by 195 nations in total at the summit. This agreement was meant to replace the Kyoto protocol, which Canada withdrew from in 2011. [11] The targets will also be reviewed every 5 years to make sure nations are compliant in accordance with the agreement.

Canada also has many bilateral agreements with various nations regarding green economy policies, including environmental cooperation agreements, along with a deep cooperation with the United States. [12] The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is the United Nations organization that led to the development and ratification of the Paris agreement.

Provincial Policies

Ontario

To comply with the Canadian federal policy, Ontario has chosen to implement a cap and trade system. The new system took effect January 1, 2017. The system contains two key components, cap, and trade. The cap restricts the amount of greenhouse gas pollution businesses and institutions can release into the environment. The cap shrinks year to year to encourage lower emissions. Companies must have permits or credits to cover their emissions if they exceed the cap. [13] This is where the trade part of the policy comes into effect. Companies can trade credits or permits. This allows for high polluters to buy credits or permits from low emission companies to cover their emissions. The revenue generated from the cap and trade must be invested in a transparent way to comply with the law. Places companies can invest are green technology, lower carbon fuels and buying extra credits. [13] According to the Ontario government, it will cost Ontario homeowners an extra $13 a month. There will be three types of participants in the cap and trade. The first is voluntary participants who opt in to participate in the policy. The second is mandatory participants who by law are forced to participate. The third is market participants who participate in the allowance market but aren't forced to comply with other regulations of cap and trade.

British Columbia

British Columbia was the first province in Canada to implement a green economy policy. On July 1, 2008 the province implemented a revenue-neutral carbon tax. The objectives of the tax are

  • encourage individuals, businesses, industry, and others to use less fossil fuel and reduce their - greenhouse gas emissions
  • send a consistent price signal
  • ensure those who produce emissions pay for them
  • make clean energy alternatives more attractive. [14]

Alberta

The Alberta government has opted to implement a carbon levy and rebates policy to combat climate change. The policy took effect January 1, 2017 and increases in 2018. The prices at which the Alberta government has priced carbon is $20 per tonne in 2017 and then $30/ per tonne after the increase takes effect in 2018. [15] Not all carbon will be taxed, the price is based on the amount of carbon pollution released by the fuel when it is combusted, not on the mass of fuel itself. These include transportation and heating fuels such as diesel, gasoline, natural gas, and propane. Certain fuels, such as marked gas and diesel used on farms, will be exempt from the levy. All revenue will be invested back into the province of Alberta. [15]

Newfoundland and Labrador

Newfoundland and Labrador have implemented the Management of Greenhouse Gas Act (bill 34) to comply with federal climate change legislation. It took effect on March 7, 2017.

A fund has been created for supporting emissions-reduction technology, which will be 100% industry-funded. [16] The goals of the management of greenhouse gas act are:

  • The Government of Newfoundland and Labrador is introducing the new Management of Greenhouse Gas Act to reduce industrial emissions.
  • Emissions will be monitored for two years to help set reduction targets in consultation with industry.
  • The act also establishes a new fund for clean technology which will be 100% industry funded.
  • Local large industry accounts for 43% of greenhouse gas emissions and more than 30% of GDP. [16]

Quebec

Quebec was an early adopter when it comes to economic climate change policy. In 2013 the Quebec government implemented 2013-2020 climate change action plan making them one of the first provinces to implement green economic climate change policy. The policy called for $2.7 billion to be invested towards the government’s climate change goals. The revenues are self-funded from the carbon market. The plan allocates $200 million to support businesses to reduce GHG emissions by investing in projects related to energy efficiency, process optimization and the installation of more eco-performing equipment. [17] The provincial government implemented the cap and trade system for businesses in the industrial and electricity sectors that emit 25,000 metric tons or more of CO2. The goal of the policy is to reduce GHG emissions in the highest emitting sectors by promoting energy efficiency as well as the use of energy from renewable sources. [18]

Comparative green economy policies

Federal level

There are a variety of countries that a part of the OECD that are transitioning their economies towards one that is green and sustainable. Depending on the type of economy one’s country has, various policies are quite different. Germany has adopted a transition policy currently known as Energiewende. It is an ambitious industrial and societal transformation towards a low carbon energy system based on developing renewable energy. [19] This has predominantly been done by convincing outside investors to invest heavily into the renewable sector, by having a feed-in tariff law. This is an example of a Coordinated Market Economy working with investors to spur green growth. There are three main parts to the feed in tariff-law:

(1) A purchase obligation for the local grid obligator;

(2) guaranteed minimum prices; and

(3) a nationwide cost settlement system to balance out regional disparities

The energy market was liberalized in the late 1990s in Germany, but it still remains a productive but heavily regulated monopoly. [20]

This feed-in tariff law has also notoriously been a safe investment for outside investors, which makes investing in green technology in Germany a safe bet. [21] The feed in-tariff has also kept electricity prices steady, as a tweak in the feed-in tariff law accounts for the volatility associated with power generated from wind and solar sources. [22] It is also estimated that in Germany nearly half of the country's energy capacity was run by cooperatives or owned by citizens through private installations. [23]

This type of policy has been in stark contrast to Canadian green economy policy. Typically green economy policies in Canada have been aimed at investing directly into industries and companies aimed at growing the green economy. [6] Prices in Canada for electricity have also been notably volatile. [24]

USA’s policies have also been very similar to Canadian ones. In the 2010 budget, only about $21 billion focused on approaches that would reduce emissions in public transportation. [25] Much of this money is in the form of grants and loans for green energy technology and tax breaks for various companies. [25] However just $5.5 billion was allocated to grants and loans for emissions reducing technologies for the private sector. [25] Most other green economy policies in the United States have been aimed at tax breaks or special tax provisions, which incentivizes certain energy related activities. [25]

Most of the American policy is comparable to what is seen in Canada. The Canadian budget has been allocated to investing public money into green technology initiatives while focusing on creating a sustainable economy for jobs. [6] This could potentially be related to the similar types of economies that Canada and the United States share, as Peter Hall and David Soskice see them as Liberal Market Economies. [26] Meanwhile, Germany which has pursued different types of successful policies can be considered a Coordinated Market Economy. [26]

Provincial level

When comparing green economy policy across provinces it is clear to see that policy diffusion has taken place. Quebec and Ontario have both opted for a cap and trade system over a carbon tax that the western provinces of British Columbia and Alberta have chosen. Policies have diffused from British Columbia to Alberta and from Quebec to Ontario. The differences between the two regions of Canada can be linked to historical differences where preferences on energy policy have often differed like the National Energy Program. From the policy diffusion you can see evidence of learning theory taking place. Ontario and Alberta have clearly demonstrated this concept and have taken the successful policies that have worked in their respective regions of Canada and applied them to their provinces. Provinces will continue to improve upon their current policies and grow their green economies using policy diffusion and learning theory. Provinces will compare policies and implement policies that work for them and achieve both economic and green objectives.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emissions trading</span> Market-based approach used to control pollution

Emissions trading is a market-based approach to controlling pollution by providing economic incentives for reducing the emissions of pollutants. The concept is also known as cap and trade (CAT) or emissions trading scheme (ETS). One prominent example is carbon emission trading for CO2 and other greenhouse gases which is a tool for climate change mitigation. Other schemes include sulfur dioxide and other pollutants.

Environmental finance is a field within finance that employs market-based environmental policy instruments to improve the ecological impact of investment strategies. The primary objective of environmental finance is to regress the negative impacts of climate change through pricing and trading schemes. The field of environmental finance was established in response to the poor management of economic crises by government bodies globally. Environmental finance aims to reallocate a businesses resources to improve the sustainability of investments whilst also retaining profit margins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon tax</span> Tax on carbon emissions

A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon emissions from producing goods and services. Carbon taxes are intended to make visible the hidden social costs of carbon emissions. They are designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by essentially increasing the price of fossil fuels. This both decreases demand for goods and services that produce high emissions and incentivizes making them less carbon-intensive. When a fossil fuel such as coal, petroleum, or natural gas is burned, most or all of its carbon is converted to CO2. Greenhouse gas emissions cause climate change. This negative externality can be reduced by taxing carbon content at any point in the product cycle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western Climate Initiative</span> Nonprofit-run emissions trading scheme in California and Quebec

Western Climate Initiative, Inc. (WCI) is a 501(c)(3) non-profit corporation which administers the shared emissions trading market between the American state of California and the Canadian province of Quebec as well as separately administering the individual emissions trading systems in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia and American state of Washington. It also provides administrative, technical and infrastructure services to support the implementation of cap-and-trade programs in other North American jurisdictions. The organization was originally founded in February 2007 by the governors of five western states with the goal of developing a multi-sector, market-based program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions; it was incorporated in its current form in 2011.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon price</span> CO2 Emission Market

Carbon pricing is a method for governments to mitigate climate change, in which a monetary cost is applied to greenhouse gas emissions in order to encourage polluters to reduce fossil fuel combustion, the main driver of climate change. A carbon price usually takes the form of a carbon tax, or an emissions trading scheme (ETS) that requires firms to purchase allowances to emit. The method is widely agreed to be an efficient policy for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon pricing seeks to address the economic problem that emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases are a negative externality – a detrimental product that is not charged for by any market.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States</span> Climate changing gases from the North American country

The United States produced 5.2 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2020, the second largest in the world after greenhouse gas emissions by China and among the countries with the highest greenhouse gas emissions per person. In 2019 China is estimated to have emitted 27% of world GHG, followed by the United States with 11%, then India with 6.6%. In total the United States has emitted a quarter of world GHG, more than any other country. Annual emissions are over 15 tons per person and, amongst the top eight emitters, is the highest country by greenhouse gas emissions per person.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme</span> Australian emissions trading scheme

The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government, as part of its climate change policy, which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010. It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia. The policy began to be formulated in April 2007, when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy, the Garnaut Climate Change Review, which published a number of reports. After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government, it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment. The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon emission trading</span> An approach to limit climate change by creating a market with limited allowances for CO2 emissions

Carbon emission trading (also called carbon market, emission trading scheme (ETS) or cap and trade) is a type of emissions trading scheme designed for carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases (GHGs). A form of carbon pricing, its purpose is to limit climate change by creating a market with limited allowances for emissions. Carbon emissions trading is a common method that countries use to attempt to meet their pledges under the Paris Agreement, with schemes operational in China, the European Union, and other countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas emissions by Australia</span> Release of gases from Australia which contribute to global warming

Greenhouse gas emissions by Australia totalled 533 million tonnes CO2-equivalent based on greenhouse gas national inventory report data for 2019; representing per capita CO2e emissions of 21 tons, three times the global average. Coal was responsible for 30% of emissions. The national Greenhouse Gas Inventory estimates for the year to March 2021 were 494.2 million tonnes, which is 27.8 million tonnes, or 5.3%, lower than the previous year. It is 20.8% lower than in 2005. According to the government, the result reflects the decrease in transport emissions due to COVID-19 pandemic restrictions, reduced fugitive emissions, and reductions in emissions from electricity; however, there were increased greenhouse gas emissions from the land and agriculture sectors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Canada</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Canada related to climate change

Climate change in Canada has had large impacts on the country's environment and landscapes. These events are likely to become even more frequent and severe in the future due to the continued release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The number of climate change–related events, such as the 2021 British Columbia Floods and an increasing number of forest fires, has become an increasing concern over time. Canada's annual average temperature over land has warmed by 1.7 degrees Celsius since 1948. The rate of warming is even higher in Canada's north, the Prairies, and northern British Columbia. The country's precipitation has increased in recent years and extreme weather events have become more common.

The climate change policy of the United States has major impacts on global climate change and global climate change mitigation. This is because the United States is the second largest emitter of greenhouse gasses in the world after China, and is among the countries with the highest greenhouse gas emissions per person in the world. Cumulatively, the United States has emitted over a trillion metric tons of greenhouse gases, more than any country in the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon fee and dividend</span> Variant of carbon tax that restricts revenue use to direct payments to the people

A carbon fee and dividend or climate income is a system to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and address climate change. The system imposes a carbon tax on the sale of fossil fuels, and then distributes the revenue of this tax over the entire population as a monthly income or regular payment.

Cap and dividend is a market-based trading system which retains the original capping method of cap and trade, but also includes compensation for energy consumers. This compensation is to offset the cost of products produced by companies that raise prices to consumers as a result of this policy.

A carbon pricing scheme in Australia was introduced by the Gillard Labor minority government in 2011 as the Clean Energy Act 2011 which came into effect on 1 July 2012. Emissions from companies subject to the scheme dropped 7% upon its introduction. As a result of being in place for such a short time, and because the then Opposition leader Tony Abbott indicated he intended to repeal "the carbon tax", regulated organizations responded rather weakly, with very few investments in emissions reductions being made. The scheme was repealed on 17 July 2014, backdated to 1 July 2014. In its place the Abbott government set up the Emission Reduction Fund in December 2014. Emissions thereafter resumed their growth evident before the tax.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">British Columbia carbon tax</span> British Columbia policy which adds carbon taxes to fossil fuels

The British Columbia carbon tax has been in place since 2008. It is a British Columbia policy that adds additional carbon taxes to fossil fuels burned for transportation, home heating, and electricity and reduces personal income taxes and corporate taxes by a roughly equal amount. The carbon tax is collected at the point of retail consumption.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change policy of California</span> Overview of the climate change policy of the U.S. state of California

As the most populous state in the United States, California's climate policies influence both global climate change and federal climate policy. In line with the views of climate scientists, the state of California has progressively passed emission-reduction legislation.

Carbon pricing in Canada is implemented either as a regulatory fee or tax levied on the carbon content of fuels at the Canadian provincial, territorial or federal level. Provinces and territories of Canada are allowed to create their own system of carbon pricing as long as they comply with the minimum requirements set by the federal government; individual provinces and territories thus may have a higher tax than the federally mandated one but not a lower one. Currently, all provinces and territories are subject to a carbon pricing mechanism, either by an in-province program or by one of two federal programs. As of April 2023 the federal minimum tax is set at CA$65 per tonne of CO2 equivalent, set to increase to CA$170 in 2030.

The Canadian province of Alberta faces a number of environmental issues related to natural resource extraction—including oil and gas industry with its oil sands—endangered species, melting glaciers in banff, floods and droughts, wildfires, and global climate change. While the oil and gas industries generates substantial economic wealth, the Athabasca oil sands, which are situated almost entirely in Alberta, are the "fourth most carbon intensive on the planet behind Algeria, Venezuela and Cameroon" according to an August 8, 2018 article in the American Association for the Advancement of Science's journal Science. This article details some of the environmental issues including past ecological disasters in Alberta and describes some of the efforts at the municipal, provincial and federal level to mitigate the risks and impacts.

<i>Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act</i> Canadian law

The Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act is a Canadian federal law establishing a set of minimum national standards for carbon pricing in Canada to meet emission reduction targets under the Paris Agreement. It was passed as Part 5 of the Budget Implementation Act, 2018, No. 1 – an omnibus budget bill – during the 42nd Parliament of Canada. The law came into force immediately upon receiving royal assent on June 21, 2018.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas emissions by China</span> Emissions of gases harmful to the climate from China

China's greenhouse gas emissions are the largest of any country in the world both in production and consumption terms, and stem mainly from coal burning, including coal power, coal mining, and blast furnaces producing iron and steel. When measuring production-based emissions, China emitted over 14 gigatonnes (Gt) CO2eq of greenhouse gases in 2019, 27% of the world total. When measuring in consumption-based terms, which adds emissions associated with imported goods and extracts those associated with exported goods, China accounts for 13 gigatonnes (Gt) or 25% of global emissions. According to the Carbon Majors Database, Chinese state coal production alone accounts for 14% of historic global emissions.

References

  1. 1 2 "UNEP's Green Economy Initiative".
  2. ↑ Loiseau, E., Saikku, L., Antikainen, R., Droste, N., Hansjurgens, B., Pitkanen, K., Leskinen, P., Kuikman, P. (2016). Green Economy and Related Concepts. Journal of Cleaner Production, 139, 361-371.
  3. ↑ Webb, C., Esakin, T. C. (April 2011) A Green Economy for Canada: Consulting with Canadians. Canadian Institute for Environmental Law and Policy. Retrieved 2022-04-24.
  4. 1 2 3 Chalifour, N. J. (2016). Canadian climate federalism: Parliament's ample constitutional authority to legislate GHG emissions through regulations, a national cap and trade program, or a national carbon tax. National Journal of Constitutional Law, 36(2), 346.
  5. ↑ Chalifour, N. J. (2016), 347.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Finance, Government of Canada, Department of. "Budget 2016: Chapter 4 - A Clean Growth Economy". www.budget.gc.ca. Retrieved 2017-03-29.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ↑ Chalifour, N. J. (2016). Canadian climate federalism: Parliament's ample constitutional authority to legislate GHG emissions through regulations, a national cap and trade program, or a national carbon tax. National Journal of Constitutional Law, 36(2), 347.
  8. 1 2 Canada, Government of Canada,Environment and Climate Change (2016-10-03). "Canada News Centre - Government of Canada Announces Pan-Canadian Pricing on Carbon Pollution". news.gc.ca. Archived from the original on 2017-03-30. Retrieved 2017-03-29.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ↑ "The Paris climate deal: What is Canada signing up for?". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 2017-03-29.
  10. ↑ "What Canada agreed to in Paris". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 2017-03-29.
  11. ↑ "CBC.ca - Interactive - Timeline: Canada and Kyoto". www.cbc.ca. Retrieved 2017-03-29.
  12. ↑ Canada, Government of Canada, Environment and Climate Change. "Environment and Climate Change Canada - About Environment and Climate Change Canada - International Environmental Agreements". www.ec.gc.ca. Retrieved 2017-03-29.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. 1 2 "Cap and Trade in Ontario".
  14. ↑ "Province of British Columbia". www.fin.gov.bc.ca. Retrieved 2017-03-29.
  15. 1 2 "Carbon levy and rebates". www.alberta.ca. Retrieved 2017-03-29.
  16. 1 2 "Provincial Government Announces Plan for Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reductions". www.releases.gov.nl.ca. Retrieved 2017-03-29.
  17. ↑ "Quebec in Action" (PDF).
  18. ↑ "Cap and trade system for greenhouse gas emission allowances". www.mddelcc.gouv.qc.ca. Retrieved 2017-03-29.
  19. ↑ "Understanding the Energiewende" (PDF).
  20. ↑ Wuestenhagen R., and Bilharz, M. "Green energy market development in Germany: effective public policy and emerging customer demand". Energy Policy. 34: 1681–1696.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ↑ "Germany's Green Economy Strategy | World Resources Institute". www.wri.org. Retrieved 2017-03-29.
  22. ↑ Fares, Robert (October 7, 2014). "Energiewende: Two Energy Lessons for the United States from Germany". Scientific American Blog Network. Retrieved 2022-04-25.
  23. ↑ "The reform of the Renewable Energy Act". Clean Energy Wire. 2016-06-27. Retrieved 2017-03-29.
  24. ↑ Board, Government of Canada, National Energy. "NEB – ARCHIVED - Canadian Energy Pricing Trends 2000-2010 - Energy Facts". www.neb-one.gc.ca. Retrieved 2017-03-29.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. 1 2 3 4 "Energy, the U.S. Budget, and Climate Change" (PDF).
  26. 1 2 Soskice, David (2001). Varieties of Capitalism . Oxford University Press. pp.  19.
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