Related Research Articles
Pope Pius XII was head of the Catholic Church and sovereign of the Vatican City State from 2 March 1939 until his death in October 1958. Before his election to the papacy,he served as secretary of the Department of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs,papal nuncio to Germany,and Cardinal Secretary of State,in which capacity he worked to conclude treaties with various European and Latin American nations,including the Reichskonkordat treaty with the German Reich.
Victor Emmanuel III,born Vittorio Emanuele Ferdinando Maria Gennaro di Savoia,was King of Italy from 29 July 1900 until his abdication on 9 May 1946. A member of the House of Savoy,he also reigned as Emperor of Ethiopia (1936–1941) and King of the Albanians (1939–1943) following the Italian invasions of Ethiopia and Albania. During his reign of nearly 46 years,which began after the assassination of his father Umberto I,the Kingdom of Italy became involved in two world wars. His reign also encompassed the birth,rise,and fall of the Fascist regime.
Gian Galeazzo Ciano,2nd Count of Cortellazzo and Buccari,was an Italian diplomat and politician who served as Foreign Minister in the government of his father-in-law,Benito Mussolini,from 1936 until 1943. During this period,he was widely seen as Mussolini's most probable successor as head of government.
Bernardino Nogara was the financial advisor to the Vatican between 1929 and 1954,appointed by Pope Pius XI and retained by Pope Pius XII as the first Director of the Special Administration of the Holy See. According to historian John F. Pollard,Nogara laid "the foundations" for "one of the biggest pillars for the Vatican's post-Second World War financial strength."
Myron Charles Taylor was an American industrialist,and later a diplomat involved in many of the most important geopolitical events during and after World War II.
Włodzimierz Halka Ledóchowski was a Polish Catholic priest who served as the 26th Superior-General of the Society of Jesus from 11 February 1915 until his death in 1942. Prior to taking holy orders,he was briefly a page in the Habsburg Court.
The Palazzo Venezia or Palazzo Barbo,formerly "'Palace of Saint Mark'",is a large early Renaissance palace in central Rome,Italy,situated to the north of the Capitoline Hill. Today the property of the Republic of Italy it houses the National Museum of the Palazzo Venezia. The main (eastern) facade measures 77 metres (253 ft) in length,with a height of about 31 metres (102 ft). The north wing,containing the "Cibo Apartment",extending westwards,measures 122 metres (400 ft) in length. It covers an area of 1.2 hectares and encloses two gardens and the Basilica of Saint Mark. It was built in the present form during the 1450s by Cardinal Pietro Barbo (1417-1471),titular holder of the Basilica of Saint Mark,who from 1464 ruled as Pope Paul II. Barbo,a Venetian by birth as was customary for cardinals of the Basilica of Saint Mark,lived there even as pope and amassed there a great collection of art and antiquities. During the first half of the 20th century it became the residence and headquarters of the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini,who made notable orations from its balcony to huge crowds filling the Piazza Venezia.
Rome,along with Vatican City,was bombed several times during 1943 and 1944,primarily by Allied and to a smaller degree by Axis aircraft,before the city was liberated by the Allies on June 4,1944. Pope Pius XII was initially unsuccessful in attempting to have Rome declared an open city,through negotiations with U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt via Archbishop Francis Spellman. Rome was eventually declared an open city on August 14,1943 by the defending Italian forces.
The Capture of Rome occurred on 20 September 1870,as forces of the Kingdom of Italy took control of the city and of the Papal States. After a plebiscite held on 2 October 1870,Rome was officially made capital of Italy on 3 February 1871,completing the unification of Italy (Risorgimento).
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was an Italian politician who was the dictator of Fascist Italy from the March on Rome in 1922,until his overthrow in 1943. He was also Duce of Italian fascism from the establishment of the Italian Fasces of Combat in 1919,until his summary execution in 1945. He founded and led the National Fascist Party (PNF). As a dictator and founder of fascism,Mussolini inspired the international spread of fascist movements during the interwar period.
Count Louis Charles Pineton de Chambrun was a French diplomat and writer.
The papacy of Pius XII began on 2 March 1939 and continued to 9 October 1958,covering the period of the Second World War and the Holocaust,during which millions of Jews were murdered by Adolf Hitler's Germany. Before becoming pope,Cardinal Pacelli served as a Vatican diplomat in Germany and as Vatican Secretary of State under Pius XI. His role during the Nazi period has been closely scrutinised and criticised. His supporters argue that Pius employed diplomacy to aid the victims of the Nazis during the war and,through directing his Church to provide discreet aid to Jews and others,saved hundreds of thousands of lives. Pius maintained links to the German Resistance,and shared intelligence with the Allies,but at the same time he developed alliances with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy and even arranged secret negotiations with Hitler's envoys. His strongest public condemnation of genocide was,however,considered inadequate by the Allied Powers,while the Nazis viewed him as an Allied sympathizer who had dishonoured his policy of Vatican neutrality.
Pope Pius XII's response to the Roman razzia,or mass deportation of Jews,on October 16,1943,is a significant issue relating to Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust. Under Mussolini,no policy of abduction of Jews had been implemented in Italy. Following the capitulation of Italy in 1943,Nazi forces invaded and occupied much of the country,and began deportations of Jews to extermination camps. Pius XII protested at diplomatic levels,while several thousand Jews found refuge in Catholic networks,institutions and homes across Italy,including in Vatican City and Pope Pius' Summer Residence. The Catholic Church and some historians have credited this rescue in large part to the direction of Pope Pius XII. However,historian Susan Zuccotti researched the matter in detail and states that there is "considerable evidence of papal disapproval of the hiding of Jews and other fugitives in Vatican properties."
Carl-Ludwig Diego von Bergen was the ambassador to the Holy See from the Kingdom of Prussia (1915–1918),the Weimar Republic (1920–1933),and Nazi Germany (1933–1943),most notably during the negotiation of the Reichskonkordat and during the Second World War.
Foreign relations of Pope Pius XII extended to most of Europe and a few states outside Europe. Pius XII was pope from 1939 to 1958,during World War II and the beginning of the Cold War.
Vatican City pursued a policy of neutrality during World War II under the leadership of Pope Pius XII. Although the city of Rome was occupied by Germany from September 1943 and the Allies from June 1944,Vatican City itself was not occupied. The Vatican organised extensive humanitarian aid throughout the duration of the conflict.
Pietro Tacchi Venturi was an antisemitic Jesuit priest and historian who served as the unofficial liaison between Benito Mussolini,the Fascist leader of Italy from 1922 to 1943,and Popes Pius XI and Pius XII. He was also one of the architects of the 1929 Lateran Treaty,which ended the "Roman Question",and recognized the sovereignty of Vatican City,which made it an actor of international relations. A claimed attempt to assassinate Venturi with a paper knife,one year before the treaty's completion,made headlines around the world. Venturi had begun the process of reconciliation by convincing Mussolini to donate the valuable library of the Palazzo Chigi to the Vatican.
Eugenio Cardinal Pacelli visited the United States for two weeks in October–November 1936 as Cardinal Secretary of State and Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church. At the time,Pacelli was the highest-ranking Catholic official ever to visit the US. Although he did not visit the US as Pope,he was the first Pope who visited the US at any time in his life.
François de Vial was a diplomat and a Minister Plenipotentiary of France.
References
- 1 2 3 Tittmann, Harold H. (2004). Inside the Vatican of Pius XII : the memoir of an American diplomat during World War II (1st ed.). New York: Image Books/Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-51129-9. OCLC 53059486.
- ↑ "AMERICAN DIPLOMAT WEDS.; Harold Tittman Jr., Rome Attache Marries Eleanor Barclay in Paris". The New York Times. 1928-02-22. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 2021-01-07.
- 1 2 Failmezger, Victor (22 September 2020). Rome : city in terror : the Nazi occupation 1943-44. Oxford, UK. ISBN 978-1-4728-4128-5. OCLC 1105147914.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - 1 2 "Harold Hilgard Tittmann Jr. - People - Department History - Office of the Historian". history.state.gov. Retrieved 2021-01-05.
- ↑ "TITTMAN, HAROLD H. JR". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286 . Retrieved 2021-01-05.
| Chargé d'Affaires | |
|---|---|
| Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary | |
| Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary | |
