How to Clone a Mammoth

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How to Clone a Mammoth: The Science of De-Extinction
How to Clone a Mammoth Cover.jpg
Cover for How to Clone a Mammoth
Author Beth Shapiro
Subject Resurrection biology, paleontology, conservation biology
Genre Non-fiction
Publisher Princeton University Press
Publication date
April 6, 2015
Pages240
Awards
  • 2016 PROSE Award in Popular Science & Popular Mathematics, Association of American Publishers [1]
    * 2016 AAAS/Subaru SB&F Prize for Excellence in Science Books, Young Adult Science Books [2]
    * 2015 Los Angeles Times Book Prize in Science & Technology Finalist [3]
ISBN 978-0691157054

How to Clone a Mammoth: The Science of De-Extinction is a 2015 non-fiction book by biologist Beth Shapiro and published by Princeton University Press. The book describes the current state of de-extinction technology and what the processes involved require in order to accomplish the potential resurrection of extinct species.

Contents

Content

The book is laid out as a step-by-step guide on how to clone an animal, with each chapter detailing a different topic that needs to be explored and answered before de-extinction of a species will be complete. This also involves a particular focus on resurrection of the mammoth. [4]

Several chapters deal with the genetic material itself and how to obtain it, along with the difficulties of recovering viable DNA samples from mummified or fossilized remains. Due to the actions of nucleases after cell death, most DNA of extinct species is fragmented into small pieces that have to be reconstructed at least partially if it is to be cloned. This fragmentation means that recovery of a full extinct genome is largely impossible. Thus, only partial genes can be utilized and the most viable method is to use a close evolutionary relative of the extinct species and insert the genes that differ into an embryo of the living species. [4] For mammoth de-extinction, any trait consideration would involve the Asian elephant, the closest still-living relative. Using genes from extrapolated mammoth DNA, the Asian elephant could be made to survive across a wider range, including cold environments, protecting it against possible extinction. This gene transfer to benefit living species is one of the primary sources of research done with de-extinction technology in addition to the desire to revive lost species. [5]

Three following chapters discuss current technology available for moving genes and creating modified elephant genomes, including CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspersed Short Palindromic Repeats) and TALENS (Transcription Activator-like Effector Nucleases). [6] The final chapters discuss the environmental benefits and potential drawbacks of mammoths or other extinct species being reintroduced. For mammoths specifically, their heavy weight and specific methods of foraging help grasslands grow in colder climates, potentially turning Siberian permafrost into a tundra-like region with numerous plant species. [7]

Style and tone

Shaoni Bhattacharya in New Scientist noted that while the book "can be a little academic", Shapiro manages to explain "complex molecular biology clearly" and that it "really comes alive, though, when she describes her own expeditions". [8] Writing for National Geographic , Riley Black describes Shapiro's writing style as "sharp, witty, and impeccably-argued" and says that she writes "finely-honed prose" that "cuts through the hype that has clouded the debate" on whether it is possible to clone extinct animals and also whether such efforts should instead be directed toward assisting species that are currently in danger of extinction. [9] Caspar Henderson for The Spectator called the book's writing "lively, skeptical and nuanced" and stated that Shapiro covered topics with "great clarity". [10] In an article for Science , A. Rus Hoelzel characterized the writing as "rich in anecdote and scientifically precise". [11]

Critical reception

Alec Rodriguez praised the book's writing in a Yale Scientific article, approving of the conciseness and yet approachable technical detail that is included in the book while still remaining smooth in its flow between subjects. Rodriguez concluded that the book also "leaves the reader optimistic" in regards to future scientific advancements and the usage of Pleistocene Park. [12] Times Higher Education's Tiffany Taylor considered the work a "thought-provoking book [that] offers excitement and wonder" and that, through Shapiro's writing and direct discussion, the book manages to "paint a scientifically accurate yet magical world where Pleistocene giants might roam the Arctic tundra once again, and where we have the chance to undo some past mistakes". [13] A review in Publishers Weekly applauded the book's attempt to state plainly the science involved and determined that readers will "emerge with the ability to think more deeply about the facts of de-extinction and cloning at a time when hyperbolic and emotionally manipulative claims about such scientific breakthroughs are all too common". [14] Kent H. Redford in the journal Oryx recommended that others read the book, adding that it "will make everyone think, will make some mad, others inspired, and hopefully will educate all conservationists to the extraordinary potential opportunities, good and bad, that de-extinction presents". [15] In The Quarterly Review of Biology , Derek D. Turner called the writing "careful, accessible, and thoughtful", while also pointing out that the book as a whole "conveys a sense of excitement about the science, but without the uncritical techno-optimism that one sees in many popular articles". [16] Philip J. Seddon in an article for the journal Trends in Ecology and Evolution described the book as an "important contribution to the ongoing debate" by how it changed the focus on what de-extinction is about to "ecological resurrection, and not species resurrection". [17]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cloning</span> Process of producing genetically identical individuals of an organism

Cloning is the process of producing individual organisms with identical or virtually identical DNA, either by natural or artificial means. In nature, some organisms produce clones through asexual reproduction. In the field of biotechnology, cloning is the process of creating cloned organisms (copies) of cells and of DNA fragments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mammoth</span> Extinct genus of mammals

A mammoth is any species of the extinct elephantid genus Mammuthus, one of the many genera that make up the order of trunked mammals called proboscideans. The various species of mammoth were commonly equipped with long, curved tusks and, in northern species, a covering of long hair. They lived from the Pliocene epoch into the Holocene at about 4,000 years ago, and various species existed in Africa, Europe, Asia, and North America. They were members of the family Elephantidae, which also contains the two genera of modern elephants and their ancestors. Mammoths are more closely related to living Asian elephants than African elephants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Extinction</span> Termination of a taxon by the death of the last member

Extinction is the termination of a kind of organism or of a group of kinds (taxon), usually a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point. Because a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa, where a species presumed extinct abruptly "reappears" after a period of apparent absence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Georges Cuvier</span> French naturalist, zoologist and paleontologist (1769–1832)

Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric, Baron Cuvier, known as Georges Cuvier, was a French naturalist and zoologist, sometimes referred to as the "founding father of paleontology". Cuvier was a major figure in natural sciences research in the early 19th century and was instrumental in establishing the fields of comparative anatomy and paleontology through his work in comparing living animals with fossils.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mastodon</span> Genus of mammals (fossil)

A mastodon is any proboscidean belonging to the extinct genus Mammut. Mastodons inhabited North and Central America during the late Miocene or late Pliocene up to their extinction at the end of the Pleistocene 10,000 to 11,000 years ago. They lived in herds and were predominantly forest-dwelling animals. They generally had a browsing diet, distinct from that of the contemporary Columbian mammoth, which tended towards grazing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Steppe bison</span> Extinct species of mammal

The steppe bison or steppe wisent is an extinct species of bison that was once found on the mammoth steppe where its range included British Isles, Europe, Central Asia, Northern to Northeastern Asia including Japanese archipelago, Beringia, and central North America, from northwest Canada to Mexico during the Quaternary. This wide distribution is sometimes called the Pleistocene bison belt, compared to the Great bison belt. The radiocarbon dating of a steppe bison skeleton indicates that it was present 5,400 years ago in Alaska. Three chronological subspecies, Bison priscus priscus, Bison priscus mediator, and Bison priscus gigas, have been suggested.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pleistocene megafauna</span> Large animals that lived during the Pleistocene

Pleistocene megafauna is the set of large animals that lived on Earth during the Pleistocene epoch. Pleistocene megafauna became extinct during the Quaternary extinction event resulting in substantial changes to ecosystems globally. The role of humans in causing Pleistocene megafaunal extinctions is controversial.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dwarf elephant</span> Prehistoric elephant species

Dwarf elephants are prehistoric members of the order Proboscidea which, through the process of allopatric speciation on islands, evolved much smaller body sizes in comparison with their immediate ancestors. Dwarf elephants are an example of insular dwarfism, the phenomenon whereby large terrestrial vertebrates that colonize islands evolve dwarf forms, a phenomenon attributed to adaptation to resource-poor environments and selection for early maturation and reproduction. Some modern populations of Asian elephants have also undergone size reduction on islands to a lesser degree, resulting in populations of pygmy elephants.

Commercial animal cloning is the cloning of animals for commercial purposes, currently, including livestock, competition camels and horses, pets, medical uses, endangered and extinct animals, as first demonstrated in 1996 for Dolly the sheep.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Beth Shapiro</span> American biologist

Beth Alison Shapiro is an American evolutionary molecular biologist. She is a professor in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the University of California, Santa Cruz. Shapiro's work has centered on the analysis of ancient DNA. She was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship in 2009 and a Royal Society University Research Fellowship in 2006.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Columbian mammoth</span> Extinct species of mammoth that inhabited North America

The Columbian mammoth is an extinct species of mammoth that inhabited the Americas as far north as the Northern United States and as far south as Costa Rica during the Pleistocene epoch. It was one of the last in a line of mammoth species, beginning with Mammuthus subplanifrons in the early Pliocene. DNA studies show that the Columbian mammoth was a hybrid species between woolly mammoths and another lineage descended from steppe mammoths; the hybridization happened more than 420,000 years ago. The pygmy mammoths of the Channel Islands of California evolved from Columbian mammoths. The closest extant relative of the Columbian and other mammoths is the Asian elephant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pleistocene rewilding</span> Ecological practice

Pleistocene rewilding is the advocacy of the reintroduction of extant Pleistocene megafauna, or the close ecological equivalents of extinct megafauna. It is an extension of the conservation practice of rewilding, which involves reintroducing species to areas where they became extinct in recent history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Woolly mammoth</span> Extinct species of mammoth from the Quaternary period

The woolly mammoth is an extinct species of mammoth that lived during the Pleistocene until its extinction in the Holocene epoch. It was one of the last in a line of mammoth species, beginning with Mammuthus subplanifrons in the early Pliocene. The woolly mammoth began to diverge from the steppe mammoth about 800,000 years ago in East Asia. Its closest extant relative is the Asian elephant. DNA studies show that the Columbian mammoth was a hybrid between woolly mammoths and another lineage descended from steppe mammoths.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paul Schultz Martin</span> American paleontologist

Paul Schultz Martin was an American geoscientist at the University of Arizona who developed the theory that the Pleistocene extinction of large mammals worldwide was caused by overhunting by humans. Martin's work bridged the fields of ecology, anthropology, geosciences, and paleontology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Revival of the woolly mammoth</span> Efforts to revive the woolly mammoth

The existence of frozen soft-tissue remains and DNA of woolly mammoths has led to the idea that the species could be recreated by scientific means. In 2003 the pyrenean ibex was briefly revived, giving credence to the idea that the mammoth could be successfully revived. As of today, several methods have been proposed to achieve this goal, including cloning, artificial insemination, and genome editing. The ethics of reviving the animal have been disputed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">De-extinction</span> Process of re-creating an extinct species

De-extinction is the process of generating an organism that either resembles or is an extinct species. There are several ways to carry out the process of de-extinction. Cloning is the most widely proposed method, although genome editing and selective breeding have also been considered. Similar techniques have been applied to certain endangered species, in hopes to boost their genetic diversity. The only method of the three that would provide an animal with the same genetic identity is cloning. There are benefits and malefits to the process of de-extinction ranging from technological advancements to ethical issues.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Molecular paleontology</span>

Molecular paleontology refers to the recovery and analysis of DNA, proteins, carbohydrates, or lipids, and their diagenetic products from ancient human, animal, and plant remains. The field of molecular paleontology has yielded important insights into evolutionary events, species' diasporas, the discovery and characterization of extinct species. loo In shallow time, advancements in the field of molecular paleontology have allowed scientists to pursue evolutionary questions on a genetic level rather than relying on phenotypic variation alone. By applying molecular analytical techniques to DNA in Recent animal remains, one can quantify the level of relatedness between any two organisms for which DNA has been recovered. Using various biotechnological techniques such as DNA isolation, amplification, and sequencing scientists have been able to gain expanded new insights into the divergence and evolutionary history of countless recently extinct organisms. In February 2021, scientists reported, for the first time, the sequencing of DNA from animal remains, a mammoth in this instance, over a million years old, the oldest DNA sequenced to date.

Necrofauna are species that were previously extinct and have been biologically revived or recreated by the process of de-extinction.

Revive & Restore is a California-based nonprofit that works to bring biotechnologies to conservation biology, with the mission to enhance biodiversity through the genetic rescue of endangered and extinct animals.

Colossal Biosciences is a biotechnology and genetic engineering company working to genetically resurrect the woolly mammoth and the Tasmanian tiger. It has claimed to have the first woolly mammoth hybrid calves by 2027 and will reintroduce them to the Arctic tundra habitat to restore the mammoth steppe grasslands and combat climate change. Endangered Asian elephants reportedly would have mammoth traits. Likewise, it plans to launch a thylacine research project to release Tasmanian tiger joeys back to their original Tasmanian and broader Australian habitat after a period of observation in captivity.

References

  1. "2016 Winners". PROSEAwards.com. Association of American Publishers. 2015. Retrieved April 8, 2016.
  2. Korte, Andrea (January 27, 2016). "2016 AAAS/Subaru SB&F Prizes Honor Science Books About Animals: In the Field, In Your Backyard, or Back From Extinction". AAAS.org. American Association for the Advancement of Science . Retrieved April 8, 2016.
  3. Kellogg, Carolyn (February 23, 2016). "L.A. Times Book Prizes will honor Juan Felipe Herrera, James Patterson; finalists announced". Los Angeles Times . Retrieved April 8, 2016.
  4. 1 2 McLemee, Scott (July 29, 2015). "On the Verge of De-Extinction". Inside Higher Ed . Retrieved March 27, 2016.
  5. Toomey, Diane (June 17, 2015). "Cloning a Mammoth: Science Fiction or Conservation Tool?". Yale Environment 360 . Retrieved March 31, 2016.
  6. Jones, Steve (July 11, 2015). "How not to clone a mammoth". The Lancet . Elsevier. 386 (9989): 125. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)61229-6. S2CID   54229127 . Retrieved April 3, 2016.
  7. Bohac, Allison (June 13, 2015). "Extinct species may get a second chance". Science News . Society for Science and the Public. 187 (12): 27. Retrieved April 3, 2016.
  8. Bhattacharya, Shaoni (May 20, 2015). "How to Clone a Mammoth: But should we?". New Scientist . Retrieved March 26, 2016.
  9. Black, Riley (April 10, 2015). "Book in Brief: How to Clone a Mammoth". National Geographic . Retrieved June 6, 2021.
  10. Henderson, Caspar (May 16, 2015). "If we recreate the mammoth, it will be 99.999 per cent white elephant". The Spectator . Retrieved April 7, 2016.
  11. Hoelzel, A. Rus (July 24, 2015). "Raising the dead". Science . American Association for the Advancement of Science. 349 (6246): 388. doi:10.1126/science.aaa9849. S2CID   51606606.
  12. Rodriguez, Alec (November 4, 2015). "Book Review: How to Clone a Mammoth". Yale Scientific . Retrieved March 31, 2016.
  13. Taylor, Tiffany (May 21, 2015). "How to Clone a Mammoth: The Science of De-extinction, by Beth Shapiro". Times Higher Education . Retrieved April 2, 2016.
  14. "Nonfiction Book Review: How to Clone a Mammoth: The Science of De-Extinction". Publishers Weekly . March 23, 2015. Retrieved April 4, 2016.
  15. Redford, Kent H. (January 2016). "Publications: How to Clone a Mammoth: The Science of De-extinction". Oryx . Cambridge University Press. 50 (1): 186. doi: 10.1017/S0030605315001350 .
  16. Turner, Derek D. (March 2016). "New Biological Books: How to Clone a Mammoth: The Science of De-Extinction". The Quarterly Review of Biology . University of Chicago Press. 91 (1): 73. doi:10.1086/685309.
  17. Seddon, Philip J. (October 2015). "De-extinction: Reframing the Possible". Trends in Ecology and Evolution . Elsevier. 30 (10): 569–570. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2015.08.002 . Retrieved April 11, 2016.

Further reading