Imposex is a disorder in sea snails caused by the toxic effects of certain marine pollutants. These pollutants cause female sea snails (marine gastropod molluscs) to develop male sex organs such as a penis and a vas deferens.
It was believed that the only inducer of imposex was tributyltin (TBT), [1] which can be active in extremely low concentrations, but recent studies reported other substances as inducers, such as triphenyltin [2] and ethanol. [3] Tributyltin is used as an anti-fouling agent for boats which affects females of the species Nucella lapillus (dog whelk), Voluta ebraea (the Hebrew volute), [4] Olivancillaria vesica , [5] Stramonita haemastoma [6] (red-mouthed rock shell) and more than 200 other marine gastropods.
In the dog whelk, the growth of a penis in imposex females gradually blocks the oviduct, although ovule production continues. An imposex female dog whelk passes through several stages of penis growth before it becomes unable to maintain a constant production of ovules. Later stages of imposex lead to sterility and the premature death of the females of reproductive age, which can adversely affect the entire population. [4]
In 1993, Scientists from the Plymouth Marine Laboratory found a thriving dog-whelk population in the Dumpton Gap, near Ramsgate in the UK despite high levels of TBT in the water. [7] In the Dumpton Gap population, only 25% of females showed any significant signs of imposex, while 10% of males were characterized by the absence of a penis or an undersized penis, with incomplete development of the vas deferens and prostate. After further experiments, scientists concluded that "Dumpton Syndrome" was a genetic selection caused by high TBT levels. TBT-resistance was improved at the cost of lower reproductive fitness.
The imposex stages of female dog whelks and other molluscs (including Nucella lima ) are used in the United Kingdom and worldwide to monitor levels of tributyltin. The RPSI (Relative Penis Size Index) of females to males, and the VDSI (Vas Deferens Sequence Index) are used to monitor levels of tributyltin in marine environments.
A ban on tributyltin was implemented in Canada in 2003, however, in 2006, dog whelks with imposex could still be found on the shores of Halifax Harbour in Nova Scotia. [8]
The dog whelk, dogwhelk, or Atlantic dogwinkle is a species of predatory sea snail, a carnivorous marine gastropod in the family Muricidae, the rock snails.
Muricidae is a large and varied taxonomic family of small to large predatory sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks, commonly known as murex snails or rock snails. With about 1,600 living species, the Muricidae represent almost 10% of the Neogastropoda. Additionally, 1,200 fossil species have been recognized. Numerous subfamilies are recognized, although experts disagree about the subfamily divisions and the definitions of the genera. Many muricids have unusual shells which are considered attractive by shell collectors and by interior designers.
Nucella, common name dog whelks or dog winkles, is a genus of small to medium-sized predatory sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the subfamily Ocenebrinae which is part of the large family Muricidae, the murex snails or rock snails.
Whelk is a common name applied to various kinds of sea snail. Although a number of whelks are relatively large and are in the family Buccinidae, the word whelk is also applied to some other marine gastropod species within several families of sea snails that are not very closely related.
Tributyltin (TBT) is an umbrella term for a class of organotin compounds which contain the (C4H9)3Sn group, with a prominent example being tributyltin oxide. For 40 years TBT was used as a biocide in anti-fouling paint, commonly known as bottom paint, applied to the hulls of oceangoing vessels. Bottom paint improves ship performance and durability as it reduces the rate of biofouling, the growth of organisms on the ship's hull. The TBT slowly leaches out into the marine environment where it is highly toxic toward nontarget organisms. TBT toxicity can lead to biomagnification or bioaccumulation within such nontarget organisms like invertebrates, vertebrates, and a variety of mammals. TBT is also an obesogen. After it led to collapse of local populations of organisms, TBT was banned.
Rapana venosa, common name the veined rapa whelk or Asian rapa whelk, is a species of large predatory sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusc or whelk, in the family Muricidae, the rock shells.
Thais, sometimes known by the common names dog winkles or rock shells, is a genus of medium to large predatory sea snails with an operculum, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Muricidae.
Buccinum undatum, the common whelk or the waved buccinum, is a large, edible marine gastropod in the family Buccinidae, the "true whelks".
Anostoma depressum is a species of air-breathing land snail, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusc in the family Odontostomidae.
The environmental effects of paint can vary depending on the type of paint used and mitigation measures. Traditional painting materials and processes can have harmful effects on the environment, including those from the use of lead and other additives. Measures can be taken to reduce its environmental effects, including accurately estimating paint quantities so waste is minimized, and use of environmentally preferred paints, coating, painting accessories, and techniques.
Laevistrombus canarium is a species of edible sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusc in the family Strombidae. Known from illustrations in books dating from the late 17th century, L. canarium is an Indo-Pacific species occurring from India and Sri Lanka to Melanesia, Australia and southern Japan. The shell of adult individuals is coloured from light yellowish-brown to golden to grey. It has a characteristic inflated body whorl, a flared, thick outer lip, and a shallow stromboid notch. The shell is valued as an ornament, and because it is heavy and compact, it is also often used as a sinker for fishing nets.
Tomigerus clausus is a species of air-breathing land snail, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Odontostomidae.
The reproductive system of gastropods varies greatly from one group to another within this very large and diverse taxonomic class of animals. Their reproductive strategies also vary greatly, see Mating of gastropods.
Voluta ebraea, common name the Hebrew volute, is a species of medium-sized sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Volutidae, the volutes. The Hebrew volute is endemic to Brazil, where it is collected both for food and for its shell, which is highly desired for ornamental purposes. Recent studies indicate that natural populations of Voluta ebraea may be suffering declines due to overfishing and overexploitation.
Stramonita haemastoma, common name the red-mouthed rock shell or the Florida dog winkle, is a species of predatory sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusc in the family Muricidae, the rock snails.
Tenguella granulata, common name the mulberry shell or the granulated drupe, is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Muricidae, the murex snails or rock snails.
Nucella emarginata, common name the emarginate dogwinkle, is a species of medium-sized predatory sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Muricidae, the murex snails or rock snails.
Bulimulus tenuissimus is a species of tropical air-breathing land snail, a pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the subfamily Bulimulinae.
Arca zebra, or the turkey wing ark clam, is a bivalve mollusc in the family Arcidae, the ark clams.
Galba meridensis is a species of air-breathing freshwater snail, an aquatic pulmonate gastropod mollusc in the family Lymnaeidae, the pond snails.