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Fear is an intensely unpleasant emotion in response to perceiving or recognizing a danger or threat. Fear causes psychological changes that may produce behavioral reactions such as mounting an aggressive response or fleeing the threat. Fear in human beings may occur in response to a certain stimulus occurring in the present,or in anticipation or expectation of a future threat perceived as a risk to oneself. The fear response arises from the perception of danger leading to confrontation with or escape from/avoiding the threat,which in extreme cases of fear can be a freeze response. The fear response is also implicated in a number of mental disorders,particularly anxiety disorders.
Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Its subject matter includes the behavior of humans and nonhumans,both conscious and unconscious phenomena,and mental processes such as thoughts,feelings,and motives. Psychology is an academic discipline of immense scope,crossing the boundaries between the natural and social sciences. Biological psychologists seek an understanding of the emergent properties of brains,linking the discipline to neuroscience. As social scientists,psychologists aim to understand the behavior of individuals and groups.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was a Russian and Soviet experimental neurologist and physiologist known for his discovery of classical conditioning through his experiments with dogs.
Edward Lee Thorndike was an American psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at Teachers College,Columbia University. His work on comparative psychology and the learning process led to his "theory of connectionism" and helped lay the scientific foundation for educational psychology. He also worked on solving industrial problems,such as employee exams and testing.
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Albert Bandura was a Canadian-American psychologist. He was a professor of social science in psychology at Stanford University.
Comparative psychology is the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-human animals,especially as these relate to the phylogenetic history,adaptive significance,and development of behavior. The phrase comparative psychology may be employed in either a narrow or a broad meaning. In its narrow meaning,it refers to the study of the similarities and differences in the psychology and behavior of different species. In a broader meaning,comparative psychology includes comparisons between different biological and socio-cultural groups,such as species,sexes,developmental stages,ages,and ethnicities. Research in this area addresses many different issues,uses many different methods and explores the behavior of many different species,from insects to primates.
Learned helplessness is the behavior exhibited by a subject after enduring repeated aversive stimuli beyond their control. It was initially thought to be caused by the subject's acceptance of their powerlessness,by way of their discontinuing attempts to escape or avoid the aversive stimulus,even when such alternatives are unambiguously presented. Upon exhibiting such behavior,the subject was said to have acquired learned helplessness. Over the past few decades,neuroscience has provided insight into learned helplessness and shown that the original theory had it backward:the brain's default state is to assume that control is not present,and the presence of "helplessness" is what is learned first. However,it is unlearned when a subject is faced with prolonged aversive stimulation.
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William N. Schoenfeld was an American psychologist and author.
Winthrop Niles Kellogg was an American comparative psychologist who studied the behavior of a number of intelligent animal species.
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Herbert S. Terrace is a professor of Psychology and Psychiatry at Columbia University. His work covers a broad set of research interests that include behaviorism,animal cognition,ape language and the evolution of language. He is the author of Nim:A Chimpanzee Who Learned Sign Language (1979) and Why Chimpanzees Can't Learn Language and Only Humans Can (2019). Terrace has made important contributions to comparative psychology,many of which have important implications for human psychology. These include discrimination learning,ape language,the evolution of language,and animal cognition.
Dalbir Bindra FRSC was a Canadian neuropsychologist and a professor in the psychology department at McGill University (1949-1980). He is known for his contributions to the neurobiological study of motivation and behaviour and his two books on these topics;Motivation:A Systematic Reinterpretation (1959),and A Theory of Intelligent Behaviour (1976). He also served as chair of the McGill University Psychology Department.
Catherine Hartley is an American psychologist and an Associate Professor of Psychology within the Department of Psychology and Center for Neural Science at New York University in New York City. Hartley's research explores how brain development impacts the evaluation of negative experiences,decision-making,and motivated behavior. Her work has helped to elucidate how uncontrollable aversive events affect fear learning and how learning to control aversive stimuli can improve emotional resilience.
William D. Timberlake was a psychologist and animal behavior scientist. His work included behavioral economics,contrast effects,spatial cognition,adjunctive behavior,time horizons,and circadian entrainment of feeding and drug use. He is best known for his theoretical work:Behavior Systems Theory and the Disequilibrium Theory of reinforcement.
References
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- ↑ "NSF Award Search: Award # 9820480 - REU: UMN REU Site in the Cognitive and Behavioral Sciences". www.nsf.gov.
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- ↑ Linwick, Daniel; Patterson, Jeff; Overmier, J. Bruce (December 1981). "On inferring selective association: Methodological considerations". Animal Learning & Behavior. 9 (4): 508–512. doi: 10.3758/BF03209782 .[ non-primary source needed ]
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- ↑ "Affect, conditioning, and cognition : essays on the determinants of behavior".
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- ↑ "C. Alan Boneau Award".