James Thomas Monroe, or James T. Monroe, is an American scholar and translator of Arabic. He is emeritus professor of Arabic and Comparative Literature at the University of California at Berkeley, focusing on Classical Arabic Literature and Hispano-Arabic Literature. His doctorate was from Harvard University. Professor Monroe "works in the areas of lyric poetry, the Middle Ages, and East-West relations with particular interest in the importance of the Arab contribution to Spanish civilization." [1]
A survey of mostly academic studies of Islam and the Arabs. Monroe also reviews these works in terms of their literary origin and social context with regard to the evolving national consciousness of Spain, i.e., how the self-reflective nature of the issues addressed in these studies develops over the course of several centuries. Such a survey is particularly resonant with subtleties because of the eight hundred year presence of Arabic-speaking Muslim states in Spain, chiefly in the central and southern regions.
The book is divided into three parts:
1. the Study of Arabic Grammar and Lexicography (covers scholarship of seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Chapter I);
2. the Study of Political History in Al-Andalus (regarding nineteenth century scholarship, Chapters II to V); and,
3. the Study of the Cultural History of Al-Andalus (early and middle twentieth century scholarship, Chapters VI to X).
Among figures discussed: Francisco Javier Simonet (III); Francisco Codera y Zaidín (V); Julián Ribera y Tarragó (VI); Miguel Asín Palacios (VII); Emilio García Gómez and Angel González Palencia (VIII); Miguel de Unamuno, José Ortega y Gasset, Ramón Menéndez Pidal, and Américo Castro (X).
A translation from Arabic, with introduction and notes by Monroe. Concerns the literary reflections and polemical writings with regard to an intra-Muslim ethnic conflict in al-Andalus. Ibn Gharsiya [Ibn Garcia], a muladi poet (perhaps of Basque lineage), wrote his essay ( risala ) during the 11th century. It contests the then current Arab claims of supremacy over Muslims of other or mixed ethnicity. Hence it echoes the earlier Shu'ubite movement in Iran, which had challenged the Arab ascendancy there several centuries before. [2]
A translation with introduction and notes by Monroe. The poet Ibn Shuhayd (992-1035) of al-Andalus wrote this fictional narration of a voyage to the land of the djinn. Although only fragments survive, it has been reconstructed to some extent; Monroe dates it to 1025-1027. Into his stories Ibn Shuhayd places his poetry (see below, Monroe's Hispano-Arabic Poetry). Probably following somewhat al-Hamadhani's earlier invention, it is marginally of the maqama genre (see below, Monroe's The art of Badī' az-Zamān). The Risālat is sometimes mentioned among possible influences on Dante's Divina Commedia and al-Ma'arri's Epistle of Forgiveness. Monroe notes that here Ibn Shuhayd "developed a metaphysics into an aesthetics to account for the origin of beauty and the creative process in Arabic literature." [3]
Poems in Arabic script with English translation on facing page, as compiled by Monroe. In his sixty-page introduction Monroe seeks to situate the poets within the political and social environment, following poetry's fortunes over several centuries in the culture of al-Andalus. A poet's status varied: from being lauded and well patronized, to being religiously suspect and not welcome at the palace. Monroe also sheds light on the technical poetics of al-Andalus in terms general to Arabic literature.
Works by three dozen poets are translated, including: Ibn Shuhaid (992-1035), [5] poet and author (see above, Monroe's Risalat); the well-known Ibn Hazm (994-1064), author of Tauq al-hamama ["The Dove's Necklace"], Ibn Hazm was also a Zahiri jurist and a philosopher-theologian; Ibn Zaydún (1003-1071), neoclassical poet; Al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad (1040-1095), king of Seville, later deposed; Ibn Kafaja (1058-1139), nature poet; Ibn Baqi (died 1145 or 1150), muwashshaha poet; Al-Abyad (d.1130), muwashshaha poet, later crucified; Ibn Zuhr al-hafid (1113-1198), physician, muwashshaha poet; the great mystic and sufi shaykh Ibn 'Arabi (1165-1240); Ibn al-Khatib (1313-1374), vizier of Granada, historian, assassinated in Fez; Ibn Zamrak (1333-1393), whose poems are engraved on the walls of the Alhambra, later assassinated; and, Yusuf III, Sultan of Granada from 1408 until his death in 1417.
Al-Hamadhani (d.1008) of Hamadhan or Hamadan (Ecbatana of ancient Iran) is credited with inventing the literary genre of maqamat. This form employs a combination of poetry and prose, in which often a wandering vagabond makes his living on the gifts his listeners give him following his extemporaneous displays of rhetoric, erudition, or verse, often done with a trickster's touch. [6] Al-Hamadhani has become known by the title Badi' az-Zaman or Badi'u 'l-Zaman, "wonder of the age". See below, Monroe's translation of al-Maqamat al-Luzumiyah, and above his translation of Risalat al-tawabi' .
The authors discuss the medieval genres of muwashshahas and zajals as they are currently sung in North Africa (the Maghrib ). Because this music was not written, the oral performances are a crucial source. The Muslims of Spain ( al-Andalus ) were connected closely and directly with al-Maghrib, i.e., with those who later continued the music traditions of Andalus following the Spanish reconquista .
The book contains transliterated texts and translations of the verses, and about twenty pages of western musical notation of the songs, as well as discussion of their performance. Also translated are two chapters on music from a medieval Maghribi encyclopedia in Arabic by Ahmad al-Tifashi. The mutual relation of the songs to European romance is also addressed, with views and examples of a 'west-east' influence/counter-influence. [8] The authors note that evidence of a "zealous guardianship of a venerable tradition... makes it conceivable that the Andalusian music we hear today does not differ radically from what we might have heard in medieval Andalus." [9] [10]
The writer al-Saraqusti ibn al-Astarkuwi or al-Ashtarkuni (d.1143) here wrote in the genre maqamat. Saraqusti's collection of stories follows maqamat format in which, e.g., a trickster story teller may relate his adventures (see above, Monroe's book The Art of Badi' az-Zaman by al-Hamadhani). This literary genre is said to have influenced such works as the Spanish Libro de buen amor by Juan Ruiz (circa 1330). [12] [13]
Translation by Monroe with a 108-page preliminary study. Therein Monroe discusses: What is Maqamat? - Life of the Author - Works of the Author - Analysis of Four Maqamat - Doubling and Duplicity [originality within the genre] - Literary Decadence and Artistic Excellence - Remarks on the Translation and Annotations. About Saraqusti's collection of Maqamat, Monroe (at 108) comments on the difficulty to render it into a foreign language, as it is "a work studded with puns, rhymes, and double entendres ." Over fifty Maqamat are translated here. Monroe gives high praise for the "baroque" art of Saraqusti, although acknowledging that his ornamented style, with verse and contrivance, is now out of fashion. Saraqusti was an Arab of 12th century al-Andalus.
Monroe (at 46-80) analyses four of the maqamat. In "Maqamat 41 (The Berbers)" the narrator Abu l-Gamr is a character who tells his own story, which includes contradictions and misinformation. An Arab, he is proud of his noble ancestry and traditions of generosity. On the other hand, he makes cutting remarks about the barbaric Berbers. Later as a guest of a party of Berbers, Abu l-Gamr is treated very well and trusted, but he nonetheless steals their wealth. Monroe comments that Saraqusti, here using negative example, teaches about the disagreeable and distorting nature of ethnic animosity. [14]
"Ibn Shuhaid proposed the refreshing doctrine that poets are born not made, that the ability to write good poetry is a gift from God. ...the nature of poetry was determined by the physical and spiritual qualities of the poet. If the body of the [poet] was controlled by the soul, then his resulting poetry would be beautiful, he claimed. ... [I]t was the soul of the poet that determined the beauty of his poetry, not his technical mastery of language and rhetoric."
"The vagabond poets of the maqamat came in and out of their disguises, roles, and tricks, admitting who they were to the traveling narrator at the end of each adventure and appearing in a new disguise and place for the next."
The picaresque novel is a genre of prose fiction. It depicts the adventures of a roguish but "appealing hero", usually of low social class, who lives by his wits in a corrupt society. Picaresque novels typically adopt a realistic style. There are often some elements of comedy and satire. While the term "picaresque novel" was only coined in 1810, the picaresque novel originated in Imperial Rome during the 1st-2nd century CE, in particular with works such as the Satyricon of Petronius and later, and more particularly with authors such as Apuleius in Roman Numidia. It would see a revival in Spain during the Spanish Golden Age in 1554. Early Spanish contributors included Mateo Alemán and Francisco de Quevedo, who were influenced in particular by Apuleius' 2nd century work. Other notable ancient influences of the modern picaresque genre include Roman playwrights such as Plautus and Terence. The Golden Ass of Apuleius nevertheless remains, according to many scholars such as F. W. Chandler, A. Marasso, T. Somerville and T. Bodenmüller, the primary influence for the modern Picaresque genre. Subsequently, after the revival in Spain, the genre flourished throughout Europe for more than 200 years for the first time since the Roman period. It continues to influence modern literature.
A kharja or kharjah, is the final refrain of a muwashshah, a lyric genre of Al-Andalus written in Arabic or Andalusi Romance (Mozarabic).
Arabic literature is the writing, both as prose and poetry, produced by writers in the Arabic language. The Arabic word used for literature is Adab, which is derived from a meaning of etiquette, and which implies politeness, culture and enrichment.
The maqāma is an (originally) Arabic prosimetric literary genre which alternates the Arabic rhymed prose known as Saj‘ with intervals of poetry in which rhetorical extravagance is conspicuous.
Badi' al-Zamān al-Hamadāni or al-Hamadhāni was a medieval Arab man of letters born in Hamadan, Iran. He is best known for his work the Maqamat Badi' az-Zaman al-Hamadhani, a collection of 52 episodic stories of a rogue, Abu al-Fath al-Iskandari, as recounted by a narrator, 'Isa b. Hisham. His Arabic name translates into "The Wonder of the Age".
Arabic poetry is one of the earliest form of Arabic literature. Present knowledge of written poetry in Arabic dates from the 5th century, but oral poetry is much older.
Muwashshah is the name for both an Arabic poetic form and a musical genre. The poetic form consists of a multi-lined strophic verse poem written in classical Arabic, usually consisting of five stanzas, alternating with a refrain with a running rhyme. It was customary to open with one or two lines which matched the second part of the poem in rhyme and meter; in North Africa poets ignore the strict rules of Arabic meter while the poets in the East follow them. The musical genre of the same name uses muwaššaḥ texts as lyrics, still in classical Arabic. This tradition can take two forms: the waṣla of the Mashriq and the Arab Andalusi nubah of the western part of the Arab world.
Moroccan literature is the literature produced by people who lived in or were culturally connected to Morocco and the historical states that have existed partially or entirely within the geographical area that is now Morocco. Apart from the various forms of oral literature, the written literature of Morocco encompasses various genres, including poetry, prose, theater, and nonfiction like religious literature. Moroccan literature was and is mainly written in Arabic, however it was also written at a lesser extent in Berber languages, Hebrew, French, and Spanish. Through translations into English and other languages, Moroccan literature originally written in Arabic or one of the other native languages has become accessible to readers worldwide.
Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Isa Abd al-Malik ibn Isa ibn Quzman al-Zuhri was the single most famous poet in the history of Al-Andalus and he is also considered to be one of its most original. One of the characteristics of his poetry was "satire, verging on the licentious, aimed at religious experts." He deeply admired his "Eastern predecessor" Abu Nuwas.
Zajal is a traditional form of oral strophic poetry declaimed in a colloquial dialect. While there is little evidence of the exact origins of the zajal, the earliest recorded zajal poet was the poet Ibn Quzman of al-Andalus who lived from 1078 to 1160. It is generally conceded that the early ancestors of Levantine dialectical poetry were the Andalusian zajal and muwashshaḥah, brought to Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean by Moors fleeing Spain in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. An early master of Egyptian zajal was the fourteenth century zajjāl Abu ʿAbd Allāh al-Ghubārī. Zajal's origins may be ancient but it can be traced back to at least the 12th century. Today it is most alive in the Levant as well as the Maghreb, particularly Morocco and Algeria. Zajal is semi-improvised and semi-sung and is often performed in the format of a debate between zajjalin. It is usually accompanied by percussive musical instruments and a chorus of men who sing parts of the verse.
Maqamat Badi' al-Zaman al-Hamadhani, are an Arabic collection of stories from the 9th century, written by Badi' al-Zaman al-Hamadani. Of the 400 episodic stories, roughly 52 have survived.
Emilio García Gómez, 1st Count of Alixares was a Spanish Arabist, literary historian and critic, whose talent as a poet enriched his many translations from Arabic.
Abū Muhammad al-Qāsim ibn Alī ibn Muhammad ibn Uthmān al-Harīrī, popularly known as al-Hariri of Basra was an Arab poet, scholar of the Arabic language and a high government official of the Seljuks.
Abū ‘Āmir Ibn Gharsīyah al-Bashkunsī, popularly known as Ibn Gharsiya or Ibn García, was a Muwallad poet and katib (writer) in the Taifa court in Denia.
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature.
Riddles are historically a significant genre of Arabic literature. The Qur’an does not contain riddles as such, though it does contain conundra. But riddles are attested in early Arabic literary culture, 'scattered in old stories attributed to the pre-Islamic bedouins, in the ḥadīth and elsewhere; and collected in chapters'. Since the nineteenth century, extensive scholarly collections have also been made of riddles in oral circulation.
'Abd al-Qadir ibn 'Umar al-Baghdadi was an author, philologist, grammarian, magistrate, bibliophile and a leading literary encyclopedist of the Ottoman era.
The literature of al-Andalus, also known as Andalusi literature, was produced in al-Andalus, or Islamic Iberia, from the Muslim conquest in 711 to either the Catholic conquest of Granada in 1492 or the expulsion of the Moors ending in 1614. Andalusi literature was written primarily in Arabic, but also in Hebrew, Latin, and Romance.
Abu al-Tahir Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Tamimi al Saraqusti, known simply as Al-Saraqusti or as Ibn al-Ashtarkuwi, was a twelfth century Andalusi lexicographer, poet, philologist. He was the principal exponent of the maqamat genre in al-Andalus and his Maqamat Al-Luzumiya has been described as a “masterpiece”.
The Maqamat al-Hariri is an illuminated manuscript created by Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti in 1237. The maqama manuscript is currently kept in the Bibliothèque nationale de France in Paris.
