The Lado Enclave (French: Enclave de Lado; Dutch: Lado-Enclave) was a leased territory administered by the Congo Free State and later by the Belgian Congo that existed from 1894 until 1910, situated on the west bank of the Upper Nile in what is now South Sudan and northwest Uganda. Its capital was the town of Lado.
Traditionally the home of the Lugbara, Kakwa,[1]Bari,[2] and Moru peoples,[3] the area became part of the Ottoman-Egyptian province of Equatoria, and was first visited by Europeans in 1841/42, becoming an ivory and slave trading centre.[4] Lado, as part of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, came under the control of the Khedivate of Egypt and in 1869 Sir Samuel Baker created an administration in the area, based in Gondokoro, suppressed the slave trade and opened up the area to commerce.[5]
Charles George Gordon succeeded Baker as Governor of Equatoria in 1874 and noting the unhealthy climate of Gondokoro, moved the administrative centre downstream to a spot he called Lado,[6] laying the town out in the pattern of an Indian cantonment, with short, wide and straight streets, and shady trees.[7] Gordon made the development of primary industry in Lado a priority, with the start of commercial farming of cotton, sesame and durra and the introduction of livestock farming.[8] Although Gordon stationed over three hundred soldiers throughout the region[9] his efforts to consolidate Egyptian control over the area were unsuccessful and when he resigned as governor in 1876, only Lado and the few garrison settlements along the Nile could be considered administered.[10]
Emin Pasha was appointed as governor to replace Gordon and began to build up the region's defences and developed Lado into a modern town, founding a mosque, Koranic school and a hospital, so by 1881 Lado boasted a population of over 5000 tokuls (round mud huts common to the region).[11]
Russian explorer Wilhelm Junker arrived in the Lado area in 1884, fleeing the Mahdist uprising in the Sudan, and made it his base for his further explorations of the region.[12] Junker wrote complimentarily of Lado town, in particular its brick buildings and neat streets.[12]
During the Mahdist rule of the region, Lado was allowed to fall into disuse but Rejaf was made into a penal settlement.[13]
Congo Free State rule
British desire for a Cape to Cairo railway led them to negotiate with the Congo Free State to exchange the area that became known as the Lado Enclave for a narrow strip of territory in eastern Congo between Lakes Albert and Tanganyika. These negotiations resulted in the 1894 British-Congolese Treaty, signed on 12 May, under which the British leased all of the Nile basin south of the 10° north latitude to King Leopold II of the Belgians, sovereign of the Congo Free State, for the period of his lifetime.[3][14] This area, called the Lado Enclave, linked the Congo with the navigable Nile.[15]
The treaty also dictated that the whole of the Bahr-el-Ghazal (with the exception of the Lado Enclave) be ceded to the Congo State during the lifetime of King Leopold "and his successors". The British knew that the Congo Free State would be unable to occupy Lado "for some time".[16]
French concern about Leopold's aspirations in Africa led to the 1894 Franco-Congolese Treaty, signed on 14 August, in which Leopold was forced to renounce all right to occupy north of the 5° 30" north latitude[17] in exchange for French acceptance of Leopold's ownership of Lado.[18] However, it was not until 1896 that Leopold had the resources to assemble an expedition to the enclave; "an expedition which was without doubt the greatest that nineteenth century Africa had ever seen", under Baron Dhanis.[3] The official plan was to occupy the enclave, but the ultimate aim was to use Lado as a springboard to capturing Khartoum to the north and control a strip of Africa from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean.[3] Dhanis' expedition mutinied in 1897.
Later in 1897, troops of the Congo Free State under Louis Napoléon Chaltin attempted to physically take control of the enclave.[19] Chaltin's forces reached the Nile at the town of Bedden in the enclave in February 1897 and defeated the Mahdists in the Battle of Rejaf.[20] This consolidated Léopold's claim to the Upper Nile, but although he had instructed Chaltin to continue on towards Khartoum, Chaltin did not have the forces to do so,[21] and instead chose to heavily fortify Lado (which had ceased to exist under the Mahdists),[22] Rejaf,[23] Kiro, Loka, and Yei, and occupied Dufile.[22]
By 1899, the British Government was claiming that the Congo State had not fulfilled its obligations of the Anglo-Congolese Treaty and therefore had no right to claim the Bahr-el-Ghazal. At the same time the convention was signed, the Congo State forces had occupied Rejaf, and by a tacit understanding, the State was permitted to remain in occupation of the Lado Enclave. "The Bahr-el-Ghazal has never ceased to be British, and any extension of the sphere of influence of the Congo State beyond the limits of the Lado Enclave, without the express sanction of the British Government is a wholly unjustifiable, and indeed, filibustering proceeding."[24]
In 1899, Leopold wanted to annul the Franco-Congolese Treaty, allowing him to gain more territory but the British opposed it, claiming that "serious consequences" would occur if Leopold attempted to expand the enclave's borders.[25]
In January 1900, some bored officials who had decided to explore the swamps beyond the Lado border were found by a British patrol. British officials believed this to be an official sortie and considered sending a military expedition to the enclave.[26]
Kiro had been the location of the British residence in the region but following the move to Congo Free State rule, a post (also called Kiro) was established a few kilometres north of the Lado Enclave's Kiro on the west bank of the Nile. However, in April 1901 it was discovered that this post lay within the enclave's territory and a new British post was created across the river at Mongalla.[27] The British were quick to populate and arm Mongalla, with a British Inspector, police officer, two companies of the Sudanese battalion under a British officer and a gunboat stationed there.[28]
In 1905, the strategic importance of the Lado Enclave became clear enough for the British to consider offering Leopold a small part of the Bahr-el-Ghazal in exchange for the enclave.[29] As part of this offer, the British agreed to remove their troops from the area while Leopold considered the offer. However, instead of considering, Leopold immediately ordered his troops to occupy the now vacant military posts, which was seen as a "futile and disastrous outbreak of Leopold's lust for short-term advantages. Its inevitable result was a sharp British order to Congolese forces to retreat southwards, followed by the closing of the Nile to Congolese transport."[30]
In May 1906 the British cancelled the lease of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, although Leopold refused to evacuate the region until the promised railway between the Lado Enclave and the Congo frontier was built.[31]
The Lado Enclave was important to the Congo Free State as it included Rejaf, which was the terminus for boats on the Nile, as the rapids there proved a barrier to further travel.[32] Rejaf was the seat of the commander, the only European colonial official within the enclave, who were in place from 1897 to June 1910. Efforts were made to properly defend Lado against any possible incursion by another colonial power, with twelve heavy Krupp fort guns installed in November 1906.[33]
However, there continued to be uncertainty in the enclave with the knowledge that the enclave would revert to British rule upon Leopold's death. As a result, the Congo Free State was unable to create an effective government, leading to civil unrest within the enclave.[34][full citation needed]
There were also rumours of gold deposits in Lado which led to great interest in the region in the early years of the twentieth century.[35]
Geography
Map of the Lado Enclave in 1909.
The enclave had an area of about 15,000 square miles (39,000km2), a population of about 250,000 and had its capital at the town of Lado which is near to the modern-day city of Juba. Under the 1894 Anglo-Congolese Treaty, the enclave's territory was dictated as "bounded by a line starting from a point situated on the west shore of Lake Albert, immediately to the south of Mahagi, to the nearest point of the frontier defined in paragraph (a) of the preceding Article. Thence it shall follow the watershed between the Congo and the Nile up to the 25th meridian east of Greenwich, and that meridian up to its intersection by the 10th parallel north, whence it shall run along that parallel directly to a point to be determined to the north of Fashoda. Thence it shall follow the thalweg of the Nile southward to Lake Albert, and the western shore of Lake Albert to the point above indicated south of Mahagi."[36]
A landlocked territory, it was bordered on the north by the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan province of Bahr-el-Ghazal[37] and on the east by the Nile. The shifting sandbanks of the Nile led to islands on the border of the enclave and the Sudan regularly created or destroyed and made navigability difficult.[38]
Described variously as "a small muddy triangle along the Nile, ... a chain of desolate mudforts"[39] and "shaped like a leg of mutton".[40]
Lado was the largest town in the enclave, while Yei, a fortified military station on the Yei River, was considered the second most important town.[22] The northernmost post was Kiro, on the west bank of the Nile nineteen kilometres above the British post at Mongalla,[28] while Dufile, Ismailia and Wadelai were other settlements.[41] English traveler Edward Fothergill visited the Sudan around 1901, basing himself at Mongalla between Lado to the south and Kiro to the north, but on the east shore of the river. By his account "Kiro, the most northern station of the Congo on the Nile, is very pretty and clean. Lado, the second station, is prettier still". However, he said that although the buildings were well made, they were too closely crowded together.[42]
While a large percentage of its population were Indigenous inhabitants, many Bari left the enclave, escaping Congo Free State rule, and settled on the eastern (Sudanese) shore of the Nile.[2]
The enclave was an area of seismological activity, particularly around Rejaf (which means "earthquake" in Arabic).[43] A fault line runs as a notable escarpment west of Rejaf south to Lake Albert, and while no major tremors occurred during the existence of the Lado Enclave, there was a noticeable earthquake in the region, centered on Rejaf, on 21 May 1914, which destroyed or damaged most of the buildings in the town.[43]
Fauna and flora
The enclave was well known for its enormous herds of elephants[44] which drew big-game hunters from around the world. Starting about six weeks after Leopold's death in December 1909,[45] from the years 1910 to 1912, hunters arrived in great numbers and shot thousands of elephants before Sudanese officials were able to take control of the area.[44] One of the most prolific was the Scottish adventurer W. D. M. Bell.[45]
Hippopotami were described as having been "extremely numerous and particularly obtrusive" in the enclave but their presence had dropped to almost zero during the enclave's existence.[46]
In 1912, renowned naturalist Dr Edgar Alexander Mearns travelled through the enclave as part of his expedition through eastern Africa searching for new fauna, and reported a new subspecies of Temminck's courser within the enclave.[47]
Demographics
Health
Captain Harry Ranken was posted to the Lado Enclave in 1911 and 1914
Tsetse flies were common in the enclave and African trypanosomiasis (also known as sleeping sickness), the medical condition that can occur as a result of a tsetse fly bite, led to a number of fatal cases recorded in the enclave.[48]
Malaria was the most common disease in the region, with about 80 per cent of the sickness in the neighboring Bahr El Ghazal due to malaria.[49] Those suffering from malaria also faced Blackwater fever,[50] whereby red blood cells burst in the bloodstream, releasing hemoglobin directly into the blood vessels and into the urine, frequently leading to kidney failure.
Captain Harry Ranken, who would later be awarded the Victoria Cross for gallantry in World War I, was posted to the enclave in 1911 and 1914 as a member of the Sudan Sleeping Sickness Commission, where he was based in Yei and researched methods of treatment for sleeping sickness and yaws.[51] He was due to return to the enclave in 1915 to complete his research but died from shrapnel wounds in France while serving on the front line.[51]
Weather
The seasons in the Lado Enclave were similar to neighboring regions of East Africa, whereby there were two seasons, with the dry season occurring from December to February and the wet season from March to November, although daily rain storms usually did not occur until June.[52]
The temperature was comparatively cool, and the temperature was said to "very seldom rise" to 100°F (38°C).[52]
Economy
The economy of the Lado Enclave was based on ivory and rubber. As a small region, the enclave's trading ability was small, although a lively trading community of "Egyptians, Copts and Greeks" was recorded.[53] Cotton, alcohol and utensils were the most popular items traded into the enclave.[53]
Neither the Congo Free State nor the Sudanese introduced money taxation, preferring instead to collect grain and livestock as taxation.[54]
Incorporation into the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
On 10 June 1910, following Leopold's death, the district officially became a province of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, with British Army veteran Captain Chauncey Hugh Stigand appointed administrator.[55] In 1912 the southern half of the Lado Enclave was ceded to Uganda, then a British protectorate. However, in reality, following Leopold's death and the subsequent withdrawal of Belgian colonial troops, British authorities neglected to administer the area, leaving the enclave to become a "no man's land".[56] Ivory hunters moved in and shot almost all of an estimated herd of 2000 elephants resident in the enclave, netting the hunters large profits.[56]
In 1912 Captain Harry Kelly of the British Royal Engineers was sent to the region to adjust the Sudan-Uganda border,[57] with the plan to grant Uganda a southern part of the enclave, which Uganda could more easily administer, and in return to transfer part of northern Uganda to the Sudan, thereby placing all navigable parts of the Nile under Sudanese control.[57] This was achieved on 1 January 1914 when Sudan formally exchanged part of the enclave for a stretch of the Upper Nile.[58] The area of the Lado Enclave integrated into Uganda was renamed West Nile, best known as the ancestral home of Idi Amin.[59]
Later Gondokoro, Kiro, Lado and Rejaf were abandoned by the Sudanese government, and no longer appear on modern maps.[60]
The Lado Enclave in popular culture
Although the Lado Enclave was a small, remote area in central Africa, it captured the imagination of world leaders and authors, becoming a byword for an exotic region, and was used as a setting for their stories.
Winston Churchill travelled through the enclave, declaring it "present(ed) splendid and alluring panoramas".[61]
Lord Kitchener travelled to Lado for hunting, and shot a large white rhinoceros considered a "splendid trophy", with the horn being "some twenty seven inches long" and the rhinoceros standing six feet tall.[62]
Additionally, the Lado Enclave was also a popular attraction for the wealthy classes, with reports stating that "still more exhilarating was to be taken to the Lado Enclave, East Africa's equivalent to the badlands".[63]
The enclave was the site of "the last big elephant hunt on the continent",[64][full citation needed] as dozens of hunters from around the world converged on the enclave over the years 1907 to 1909, killing several thousand elephants.[64][full citation needed] The publicity from this hunt and the resulting public outrage led to the beginnings of the conservation movement.[64][full citation needed]
In his novel Elephant Song, Wilbur Smith refers to the slaughter of elephants in the Lado Enclave following the withdrawal of the Belgian colonial service in 1910,[65]Ernest Hemingway, in his novel True at First Light, references the enclave as a wild place[66] while the 1936 story "The Curse of Simba", refers to the enclave as the possible locale of the legendary Elephants' graveyard.[67]
Congo Free State and Belgian Commandants of the Enclave
Leopold II was the second King of the Belgians from 1865 to 1909, and the founder and sole owner of the Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908.
The Congo Free State, also known as the Independent State of the Congo, was a large state and absolute monarchy in Central Africa from 1885 to 1908. It was privately owned by King Leopold II, the constitutional monarch of the Kingdom of Belgium. In legal terms, the two separate nations were in a personal union. The Congo Free State was not a part of, nor did it belong to Belgium. Leopold was able to seize the region by convincing other European states at the Berlin Conference on Africa that he was involved in humanitarian and philanthropic work and would not tax trade. Via the International Association of the Congo, he was able to lay claim to most of the Congo Basin. On 29 May 1885, after the closure of the Berlin Conference, the king announced that he planned to name his possessions "the Congo Free State", an appellation which was not yet used at the Berlin Conference and which officially replaced "International Association of the Congo" on 1 August 1885. The Free State was privately controlled by Leopold from Brussels; he never went there.
The White Nile is a river in Africa, the minor of the two main tributaries of the Nile, the larger being the Blue Nile. The name "White" comes from the clay sediment carried in the water that changes the water to a pale color.
Juba is the capital and largest city of South Sudan. The city is situated on the White Nile and also serves as the capital of the Central Equatoria State. It is the most recently declared national capital and had a population of 525,953 in 2017. It has an area of 52 km2 (20 sq mi), with the metropolitan area covering 336 km2 (130 sq mi).
Belgium controlled several territories and concessions during the colonial era, principally the Belgian Congo from 1908 to 1960, Ruanda-Urundi from 1922 to 1962, and Lado Enclave from 1884 to 1910. It also had small concessions in Guatemala (1843–1854) and Belgian concession of Tianjin in China (1902–1931) and was a co-administrator of the Tangier International Zone in Morocco.
The coat of arms of the Republic of South Sudan was adopted in July 2011 following independence from the Republic of Sudan. Prior to independence, South Sudan was an autonomous region of Sudan.
Southern Sudan was an autonomous region consisting of the ten southern states of Sudan between its formation in July 2005 and independence as the Republic of South Sudan in July 2011. The autonomous government was initially established in Rumbek and later moved to Juba. It was bordered by Ethiopia to the east; Kenya, Uganda, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south; and the Central African Republic to the west. To the north lies the predominantly Arab and Muslim region directly under the control of the central government. The region's autonomous status was a condition of a peace agreement between the Sudan People's Liberation Army/Movement (SPLA/M) and the Government of Sudan represented by the National Congress Party ending the Second Sudanese Civil War. The conflict was Africa's longest running civil war.
The geography of South Sudan describes the physical features of South Sudan, a country in East Africa. South Sudan is a landlocked country and borders – clockwise – Sudan from the north, Ethiopia from the east, Kenya, Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo from the south and the Central African Republic from the west.
Rejaf, also Rajāf or Rageef, is a community in Central Equatoria in South Sudan, on the west bank of the White Nile.
Mongalla or Mangalla is a Payam in Juba County, Central Equatoria State in South Sudan, on the east side of the Bahr al Jebel or White Nile river. It lies about 75 km by road northeast of Juba. The towns of Terekeka and Bor lie downstream, north of Mongalla.
Lieutenant-Colonel Roger Carmichael Robert Owen CMG OBE (1866–1941) was a British Army officer who joined the Sudan service in 1903. He was Sudan Agent in Cairo from 1905 to 1908. Owen was then appointed Governor of Mongalla Province in South Sudan from 1908 to 1918.
Yulu is a Central Sudanic language spoken by the Yulu people of South Sudan and the Central African Republic (CAR). It has an estimated 7,000–13,000 speakers.
Kiro was a colonial post in what is now the Central Equatoria province of South Sudan on the west side of the Bahr al Jebel or White Nile river. It was in part of the Lado enclave.
Louis-Napoléon Chaltin (1857–1933) was a Belgian career soldier and colonial official notable for his service in the Congo Free State during the late 19th century.
The Battle of Rejaf, also known as the Battle of Bedden, was fought on 17 February 1897 between the Belgian-led forces of the Congo Free State and Mahdist rebels in Rejaf. The battle resulted in a Congolese victory and the permanent expulsion of the Mahdists from the Lado Enclave, as well as the establishment of a Belgian outpost along the Nile.
The Greeks in South Sudan represent the Omogenia in what became the Republic of South Sudan in 2011. The population is tiny in number – estimated at around 90 – but historically played an important role and has some prominent members, especially First Lady Mary Ayen Mayardit.
The Democratic Republic of the Congo–South Sudan border is 714 km in length and runs from the tripoint with the Central African Republic in the west to the tripoint with the Uganda in the east.
Uele District was a district of the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo. It roughly corresponded to the current provinces of Bas-Uélé and Haut-Uélé.
Léon-Charles-Édouard Hanolet was a Belgian soldier, explorer and colonial administrator. He is known for his explorations in 1894–1895 in what is now the Central African Republic, which led to an agreement between France and Belgium that the Ubangi-Mbomou rivers would form the boundary between their territories. He defended the Lado Enclave against the retreating Mahdist forces in 1898.
Edmond van Eetvelde was a Belgian diplomat and first General Administrator of the Department of Foreign Affairs of the Independent State of the Congo. He is also famous for commissioning the Belgian Art Nouveau architect Victor Horta in 1898 to build the Hôtel van Eetvelde, his private residence in Brussels.
1 2 W. D. M. Bell (1923). "The Lado Enclave". The Wanderings of an Elephant Hunter. London: George Newnes. p.98. Retrieved 2024-01-11. Presently King Leopold of Belgium died, and the evacuation of the Lado began. [...] Finding themselves in a country where even murder went unpunished, every man became a law unto himself. Uganda could not touch him, the Sudan had no jurisdiction for six months, and the Belgians had gone. Some of the men went utterly bad and behaved atrociously to the natives, but the majority were too decent to do anything but hunt elephants. [...] The game was shot at, missed, wounded or killed by all sorts of people who had not the rudiments of hunter-craft or rifle shooting. The Belgian posts on the new frontier saw with alarm this invasion of heavily armed safaris [...]
1 2 "Review of 'Big Game Hunting in Central Africa", The Geographical Journal, vol. 77, no. 3, March 1931, p. 276.
1 2 Sharkey, R. "Book Reviews: Imperial boundary making: the diary of Captain Kelly and the Sudan-Uganda boundary commission of 1913, in International Journal of African Historical Studies, 1998, Vol. 31, Issue 2.
↑ "According to Bungo, there was supposed to be a corner of the Lado Enclave into which no white men had as yet penetrated; and, apart from the grave-yard business, the inhabitants were rumored to be a pretty queer race." "The Curse of Simba", the World's News, 15 July 1936, p. 24.
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Congo Free State (1894–1908)
